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HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE   AND 
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PREFACE 


The  volumes  of  the  International  Library  of  Technology  are 
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requirements  of  the  text. 

In  the  table  of  contents  that  immediately  follows  are  given 
the  titles  of  the  Sections  included  in  this  volume,  and  under 
each  title  are  listed  the  main  topics  discussed.  At  the  end  of 
the  volume  will  be  found  a  complete  index,  so  that  any  subject 
treated  can  be  quickly  found. 

INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY 


CONTENTS 


HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT     Section  Page 

Origin  of  Architecture 50  1 

Egyptian  Architecture    50  4 

Asiatic  Architecture    50  30 

Greek  Architecture   50  40 

Roman  Architecture   50  80 

Early  Christian  Architecture 50  118 

Medieval  Architecture 50  129 

Byzantine  Architecture 50  130 

Rise  of  the  Saracens 50  158 

Romanesque  Architecture    50  161 

Italian   Romanesque    50  184 

Central  Italian  Romanesque   50  188 

Northern  Italian  Romanesque 50  193 

Southern  Italian  Romanesque   50  195 

French  Romanesque   50  200 

German  Romanesque    50  213 

The  Crusades 50  227 

Gothic  Architecture    50  232 

English  Gothic 50  237 

French  Gothic   51  1 

Dutch  and  Belgian  Gothic 51  44 

German  Gothic    51  57 

Italian   Gothic    51  66 

Spanish   Gothic    51  83 

Secular  Architecture 51  95 

Moslem  Architecture    51  142 

Renaissance    Architecture    51  173 

Italian  Renaissance  .                          , 51  189 


vi  CONTENTS 

HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 

Continued  Section  Page 

Florentine  Renaissance 51  189 

Roman  Renaissance    51  198 

Venetian  Renaissance  51  216 

French  Renaissance 51  236 

German  Renaissance 51  276 

Belgian  and  Dutch  Renaissance 51  285 

Spanish  Renaissance 51  291 

English  Renaissance   51  296 

Classic  Revival    51  321 

Recent  Architecture  in  Europe 51  336 

Gothic   Revival    51  342 

American  Architecture  .  51  345 


HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 
AND  ORNAMENT 

(PART  1) 


INTRODUCTION 


ORIGIN   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

1 .  The  history  of  architecture  antedates  the  written 
history  of  all  mankind;  but  we  are  able  to  study  the  charac- 
teristics of  certain  ancient  buildings  from  ruins  that  still 
exist,  or  from  their  restorations  by  modern  students.  From 
these  can  be  formed  a  general  idea  of  the  habits  and  cus- 
toms of  races  of  people  long  disappeared  from  the  earth. 

The  history  of  architecture  is  a  history  of  the  manners, 
customs,  and  temperaments  of  the  people,  as  the  buildings 
of  each  particular  period  reflect  the  social  conditions  that 
existed  at  the  time  they  were  erected.  Primarily,  archi- 
tecture had  its  origin  in  the  attempt  of  man  to  provide 
against  the  inclemency  of  the  weather.  At  that  time  there 
were  only  three  general  classes  of  human  beings:  the  hunter, 
the  shepherd,  and  the  agriculturist. 

The  pursuits  of  the  first  two  classes  tended  to  nomadic 
life,  and  therefore  no  permanent  residences  of  these  classes 
are  found,  the  cave  and  the  tent  having  been  sufficient  for 
their  purposes.  The  agriculturist,  however,  settled  where 
he  tilled  his  land  and  gathered  his  crops,  and  it  was  he  that 
planted  the  seed  of  a  community  that  grew  in  proportion  to 
the  climate  of  the  country,  fertility  of  the  soil,  etc. 


I  L  L  303—2 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


LOCAL  INFLUENCES 

2.  Six    specific    influences  affect  each  historic  style  of 
architecture. 

First,  the  geographical  influence,  which  determines  the  mode 
of  living,  and  the  means  of  communication  and  transportation. 

Second,  the  geological  influence,  which  determines  the 
quality  of  the  buildings,  as  the  presence  or  the  absence  of 
building  stone,  clay,  or  wood  will  determine  whether  the 
buildings  shall  be  of  stone,  brick,  or  timber. 

Third,  the  climatic  influence,  which  determines  the  character 
of  the  buildings  themselves,  the  size  of  their  windows,  and 
the  projection  and  inclination  of  the  roofs.  As,  for  instance, 
in  tropical  countries,  under  the  glaring  sun,  it  is  desirable  to 
have  small  windows  and  dark,  cool  interiors,  with  projecting 
cornices  that  will  shade  the  sides  of  the  building  from  the 
vertical  rays  of  the  midday  sun;  whereas,  in  cold  countries 
the  roof  must  be  steep  to  shed  the  rain  and  snow,  and  the 
windows  large  to  admit  the  sunshine. 

Fourth,  the  religious  influence,  which  will  affect  the  habits 
and  customs  of  the  people. 

Fifth,  the  political  influence,  as  the  system  of  government 
will  reflect  the  manners  and  temperaments  of  the  influential 
portion  of  the  nation. 

Sixth,  the  historical  influence,  worked  by  the  traditions  and 
achievements  of  previous  generations. 

3.  Under  all  of  these  six  influences,  each  historic  style 
has  been  further  characterized  by  one   of  two   systems  of 
construction.     The  elements  of  these  two  systems  are  the 
lintel  and  the  arch.     Where  all  the  openings  of  the  wall  of  a 
building  are  covered  by  a  straight  beam,  or  lintel,  the  system 
is  said  to  be  trabeated;  and  where  the  openings  are  covered 
by  any  form  of  arch,  the  system  is  called  arched. 

Strictly  speaking,  all  the  buildings  classified  under  ancient 
architecture  were  based  on  the  principle  of  the  lintel,  and  all 
buildings  under  modern  architecture,  are  built  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  arch,  or  a  combination  of  the  arch  and  the  lintel. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  3 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  STYLiK 

4.  Each   architectural  style   and  period  presents  certain 
characteristics  that  have  grown  out  of  the  foregoing  influ- 
ences by  which  it  may  be  recognized  and  classified.     Plans, 
walls,  roofs,  columns,  openings,  and   ornament   all   vary  to 
suit   different  conditions  of   civilization,   but    in    the    better 
periods   they   adhere   to  certain  principles  that  cause   these 
periods   to  assume  architectural  importance  in  the  general 
history.     The   dates    given    are    approximately   the   periods 
when  the  most  important  examples  were  erected. 

5.  Ornament. — The  term  ornament  is  applied  to  the 
enrichment,    or    embellishment,    of    any    object.     Ornament 
should  be   studied  only  in  its  relation   to   the   architectural 
purpose  of  the  object  that  it  adorns.     Ornament  should  be 
governed  by  certain  principles  and  fixed  laws,  as  fitness  is 
essential   to   all   good   ornament.     By   fitness    is    meant    its 
suitability    (1)    for   the   purpose   for  wrhich  the  object  is  to 
serve,  (2)  for  the  position  the  object  is  to  occupy,  (3)  for  the 
material   of    which   the   object    is   constructed,   and    (4)    for 
the  materials  of  which  the  ornament  is  composed. 

Natural  forms,  when  reduced  to  the  four  preceding  prin- 
ciples, are  said  to  be  conventionalized,  and  it  should  be 
observed  that  the  best  periods  of  art  are  those  in  which 
the  ornament  has  been  most  successfully  conventionalized. 

Ornament  may  be  flat  (simply  on  the  surface),  incised  (cut 
below  the  surface),  or  in  relief  (raised  above  the  surf  ace )._ 

6.  Ornament  can  be  divided  into  three  classes:  constructive, 
where  it  forms  a  part  of  the  object  itself,  as  a  column  in  a 
building;  representative,  where  it  represents  some  natural  formr 
or  purely  decorative,  where  it  exists  simply  to  please  the  eye. 

In  the  better  periods  of  art,  ornament  ever  has  been 
symbolic  of  some  geographical,  political,  or  religious  idea. 
Thus,  in  different  decorative  schemes,  we  find  the  rising  sun 
emblematic  of  the  East,  a  geographical  symbol;  the  crescent 
emblematic  of  the  Turkish  nation,  a  political  symbol;  and 
the  cross  emblematic  of  Christianity,  a  religious  symbol. 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

(4000  B.  C.  TO  200  B.  C.) 


INFLUENCES 

7.  Geographical. — In  Fig.  1  is  shown  a  map  of  Egypt 
and  the  surrounding  region  that  gives  an  idea  of  the  geo- 
graphical character  of  this  remarkable  country.     Along  the 
bank  of  the  river  Nile  stretches  a  narrow  strip  of  fertile 
land,  beyond  which  lies  a  sandy  desert.     This  narrow  strip 
constituted   the   entire   country   of   Ancient   Egypt.     It  had 
easy  access  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  to  the  Red  Sea,  and 
through  the  latter  to  the  Arabian  Sea.     This  geographical 
position  assisted  Egypt  largely  in  the  days  of  her  greatness, 
as  her  products  were  easily  exported,  and  those  of  foreign 
nations   easily  imported,   through    these   natural  highways, 
while  the  Nile  formed  the  means  of  communication  through- 
out the  length  of  the  home  country.     Through  its  peculiarity 
of  annually  overflowing  its  banks,  and  inundating  the  entire 
land,  the  Nile  rendered  Egypt  more  fertile  and  productive 
than  any  of  the  neighboring  countries.     Therefore,  the  civili- 
zation of  the  old  world  started  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and 
today  we  find  the  remains   of   ancient   tombs   and  temples 
stretched  from  the  city  of  Alexandria  to  the  island  of  Philae. 

8.  Geological. — While    there   were   large    quarries    of 
limestone  in  northern  Egypt,  the  central  portion  abounded 
in  sandstone,  and  the  southern  section  in  granite.     To  this 
abundance  of  lasting  building  material  we  are  indebted  for 
the  preservation  of  the  great  monuments  of  Egypt  today. 
Clay  was  used  to  make  bricks,  but  they  were  simply  baked 
in   the  sun  and  entered  into  the  construction  of  dwellings 
and  buildings  of  minor  importance.     A  suitable  wood  was 
not  to  be  found,  the  palm  and  acacia  trees  being  the  only 
ones  of  importance  that  grew  in  this  country. 


161-1  L  T  100,  303    ISO 


Pie.  1 


T.I 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  5 

9.  Climatic. — In    Egypt    there    are    but    two    seasons: 
spring  and  summer.     Frost  and  snow  are  unknown,  and  rain 
and  fog  are  very  rare.     This  delightful  climate  made  architec- 
tural construction  very  simple,  for,  while  precautions  against 
heat   were    ever    necessary,    inclement    weather    was    never 
considered. 

10.  Religious. — The    Egyptian   religion  and   its  cere- 
monies were  mysterious  and  complicated,  and  the  expression 
of    this    feeling   of    mystery    is    one    of    the    distinguishing 
characteristics  of  Egyptian  architecture.     The  religion  was 
practically  polytheistic,  although  in  theory  they  recognized 
but  one   god.     They  personified  the  phenomena  of  nature, 
attributing  special  functions  to  the  sun,  moon,  etc.,  and  to 
all  animal  creation.     Hence,  we  find  Egyptian  gods  repre- 
sented in  the  forms  of  birds  and  beasts,  with  emblems  of  the 
sun  and  the  moon  worn  as  insignia  of  their  particular  power. 
The  Egyptians  believed  in  a  highly  refined  future  state,  and 
took  more  care  in  the  preparation  of  their  tombs  than  they 
did  of  theii  dwellings.     The  dwelling  house  was  looked  on 
merely  as  a  temporary  lodging,  the  tomb  being  their  per- 
manent abode,  and  to  this  belief  is  due  the  existence  of  such 
monuments  as  the  pyramids,  which  were  erected  as  tombs 
for  the  emperors. 

11.  Political   and    Historical. — Ancient    Egypt    pos- 
sessed a  vast  population,  and  under  the  strongest  of  despotic 
governments,  a  multitude  of  her  people  were  compelled  to 
work  on  the  public  monuments  for  little  or  no  pay,     Captives 
and  foreigners  were  enslaved  and  put  on  this   work,   thus 
establishing  a  condition  of  society  that  was  immensely  favor- 
able to  the  construction  of  large  and  important  works. 

The  historical  influences  are  hard  to  trace  but  pictorial 
decorations  give  us  a  general  knowledge  of  the  characteristic 
details  back  to  about  4000  B.  C.  Greek  and  Roman  authors 
and  certain  books  of  the  Bible  also  give  us  some  information. 

12.  Egyptian  architecture  is  of  little  importance  to  the 
modern  designer,  but  it  is  of  vast  importance  to  the  student, 
as  a  starting  point  in  the  thread  of  history. 


6  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

CH  ARACTERIS  TICS 

13.  Primitive  Egyptian  structures  were  probably  com- 
posed of  bundles  of  reeds  bound  together  and  placed  verti- 
cally in  the  ground  to  form  supports.  Across  the  top  were 
laid  other  bundles  similarly  bound,  thus  forming  a  skeleton 
framework  that  was  afterwards  filled  in  with  clay.  The  doors 
and  windows  were  probably  framed  of  reeds  in  the  humbler 
dwellings,  and  of  palm  trunks  in  the  more  pretentious  resi- 
dences. In  any  case,  these  dwellings  were  very  perishable, 
and  little  remains  at  the  present  day  in  the  way  of  informa- 
tion concerning  them. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  public  structures  of  the  Egyptians 
were  built  with  a  predominating  idea  of  durability.  Immense 
stone  columns,  carved  to  represent  conventionalized  reeds 
or  painted  to  suggest  their  vegetable  prototypes,  and  massive 
tapering  walls,  with  a  hollow,  projecting  cornice,  and  incised 
decorations,  suggestive  at  once  of  previous  clay  construction, 
were  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  later  buildings. 

Great  extravagance  of  material  marks  all  Egyptian  archi- 
tecture. Stone  was  quarried  and  transported  in  great  blocks 
to  the  sites  of  the  temples  and  tombs.  Some  tombs  were 
cut  into  the  solid  rock  of  the  mountain  side,  while  the  bodies 
of  powerful  rulers  were  placed  within  the  pyramids,  but  the 
preparation  of  their  final  resting  places  was  in  all  cases 
accompanied  by  great  extravagances  of  material  and  labor. 
All  the  architecture  partakes  more  or  less  of  a  religious 
character,  as  the  Egyptian  thought  little  of  his  earthly  exist- 
ence and  devoted  his  life  to  preparation  for  the  eternity  to 
come.  Hence  his  great  care  for  the  permanency  of  his  tomb 
and  the  preservation  of  his  body  that  he  might  be  ready  and 
presentable  at  the  great  day  of  resurrection. 

Material  was  so  abundant  (see  Art.  8)  and  labor  so  cheap 
(see  Art.  11)  that  economy  of  either  was  utterly  unneces- 
sary. Massiveness,  grandeur,  and  the  expression  of  a  deep 
and  somber  mystery  (see  Art.  10)  were  the  ideals  of  the 
Egyptian  architect  and  these  he  readily  attained  under  the 
geological  and  political  conditions  that  existed. 


8  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

EXAMPLES 

14.  The  existing  structures  from  which  the  characteristics 
of  Egyptian  architecture  are  to  be  studied  consist  almost 
exclusively  of  tombs  and  temples.     The  pyramids  differ  in 
detail  from  all  other  structures,  but  may  be  generally  classed 
with    tombs.     The    Great    Sphinx,    although    unique    as    a 
monument,  is  only  one  of  the  many  temples  that   abound 
in  this  mysterious  country. 

15.  Pyramids. — The  pyramids  form  a  distinct  class  by 
themselves,  and  present  no  points  in  common  with  any  other 
Egyptian  structures.     They  are  of  gigantic  proportions  and 
were  considered  by  the  Greek  historians  as  the  first  of  the 
seven  wonders  of  the  world.     The  most  important  pyramids, 
Fig.  2,  are  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  lower  Nile  near  Gizeh. 
Of  these,  the  largest  is  the  Great  Pyramid  of  Cheops,  which 
is  shown  in  Fig.  3.     This  pyramid  was  constructed  of  blocks 
of  limestone,  some  of  whose  dimensions  are  so  great  that  it 
is  a  mystery  at  the  present  day  how  they  could  have  been 
quarried    and    transported    with    the    primitive   tools    and 
machinery    in   use    3,000    years    before    the    Christian    era. 
The   pyramid   is    about   800   feet    square  at   the   base  and 
450  feet  high. 

16.  Other  Tombs. — Besides  the  pyramids,  which  were 
royal   tombs,   there  were   smaller   tombs    for   private  indi- 
viduals.   The  earlier  tombs  consisted  of  three  parts:   (1)  the 
outer  chamber,  in  which  were  placed  food  offerings  for  the 
deceased,    wherein    the    walls    were    decorated    with    festal 
scenes;    (2)  the  secret  chambers,  containing  statues  of  the 
deceased  and  his  family;  and  (3)  the  sarcophagus  chamber 
at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  well,  in  which  the  sarcophagus,  or 
stone  coffin,  was  laid. 

In  Upper  Egypt  occur  the  rock-cut  tombs.  These  are  of 
little  architectural  value  in  themselves,  but  in  some  cases 
present  architectural  details  that  may  have  served  as  "proto- 
types to  later  'details.  The  roofs  of  the  tombs  of  Beni- 
Hassan,  in  Upper  Egypt,  were  supported  on  columns  that 


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10 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


presented  eight  to  sixteen  sides,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.     These 
were   slightly  fluted,  and  were  crowned  with   a  projecting 

cornice  that  indicated  a 
derivation  from  wooden 
origin. 

17.  Temples. — Next 
to  the  pyramids  in  massive 
grandeur  stands  the  Great 
Sphinx  at  Gizeh.  This  is 
a  statue  of  the  Egyptian 
god  Harmachis  and  is 
carved  out  of  solid  rock, 
making  a  figure  146  feet 
long,  65  feet  high,  and  34  feet  across  the  shoulders.  The 
body,  which  has  the  form  of  a  crouching  lion,  is  now  entirely 
buried  in  drifted  sand,  but  the  human  head,  measuring 
28  feet  from  chin  to  top,  and  the  broad,  massive  shoulders, 
are  still  visible,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  Between  the  forefeet 
of  the  body  is  excavated  a  temple  in  which  the  god  was 


FIG.  4 


FIG.  5 


worshipped,  and  if  built  at  the  same  time  as  the  sphinx,  this 
temple  is  the  oldest  architectural  monument  on  record,  as 
the  sphinx  antedates  the  pyramids  several  centuries. 


§r>o 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


11 


18.  The  most  important  architectural  monuments  of 
Egypt  were  its  temples,  and  the  general  scheme  of  arrange- 
ment was  the  same  in  all  cases.  The  Egyptian  temple 
consisted  of  a  small  sanctuary,  or  sckos,  that  was  reached 
through  a  large  columnar  hall  known  as  the  hall  of  assembly, 
or  hypostylc  hall,  the  latter  term  meaning  roofed  over  on 
columns.  In  front  of  the  hypostyle  hall  was  a  large  open 
court,  which  was  surrounded  by  high  and  massive  walls  and 
was  entered  between  two  tower-like  front  walls,  called  bvlons. 
Flanking  the  entrance 
there  were  sometimes 
two  obelisks  each 
quarried  in  one  great 
piece  of  stone,  usually 
bearing  hieroglyphical 
inscriptions.  In  fact 
every  plain  surface  in 
the  Egyptian  Temples 
was  covered  with  hiero- 
glyphical ornament 
of  some  sort,  either  in- 
cised below  the  face  of 
the  stone  or  painted  in 
horizontal  lines  as  a 
written  inscription  or 
in  a  large  pictorial 
subject  representing 
some  historical  event. 
Each  of  these  parts  was  varied  slightly  in  different  structures, 
some  having  two  courts  in  front  of  the  hypostyle  hall,  known 
as  the  outer  and  the  inner  court,  and  in  many  of  the  temples 
the  sekos  was  surrounded  by  a  number  of  smaller  apart- 
ments. On  the  outside  of  the  temple,  the  entrance  was 
approached  through  a  long  avenue — often  a  mile  or  more  in 
extent — lined  on  each  side  with  colossal  sphinxes,  and 
occasionally  ending  in  a  large  monumental  gateway  advanced 
before  the  main  entrance  to  the  temple,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6. 
This  gateway  is  called  zpropylon,  and  it  stood  alone  before 


FIG.  6 


12 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


the  main  entrance  like  a  silent  sentinel.  The  example  shown 
is  from  the  temple  of  Rameses  III,  at  Karnak,  and  by  com- 
paring it  with  the  surrounding  trees,  a  fair  idea  of  the 
magnitude  of  these  great  architectural  details  may  be 
obtained.  The  faces  of  the  propylon  were  always  decorated 
with  elaborate  hieroglyphic  devices.  Hieroglyphs,  meaning 


FIG.  7 

sacred  writings,  consist  of  a  series  of  pictures,  or  diagrams, 
illustrating  sequent  events.  Beyond  the  propylon  stand  the 
two  great  pylons  that  form  the  outer  front  wall  of  the 
temple,  and  the  entrance  between  these  two  'masses  is 
similar  in  detail  to  the  gateway  advanced  in  front. 

A  better  idea  of  this  arrangement  can  be  obtained  from 
Fig.  7,  which  shows  a  portion  of  the  avenue,  the  entrance, 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


13 


and  pylons  of  the  temple  of  Edfou,  in  Upper  Egypt.  In 
this  case  the  propylon  is  omitted,  but  its  form  is  duplicated 
as  an  entrance,  and  at  the  end  of  the  long  avenue  of  sphinxes 
stand  two  great  obelisks — one  on  each  side  of  the  entrance. 
The  walls  of  the  pylons  themselves  are  decorated  with 
hieroglyphs,  the  design  at  the  bottom  representing  a  group 
of  prisoners  about  to  be  executed  by  the  king. 

19.     On  the  inside  of  the  temple,  these  pylons  were  sculp- 
tured in  much  the  same  manner,  although  the  lower  part  of 


them  was  largely  covered  by  a  roofed  passageway  around  the 
edges  of  the  court.  Fig.  8  shows  the  appearance  of  these 
pylons  on  the  inside,  and  a  portion  of  the  columns  support- 
ing the  roof  on  the  right  side  of  the  court.  This  example  is 
taken  from  a  temple  on  the  island  of  Philas  in  the  upper 
Nile.  The  pylons  were  massive  structures,  and  contained, 
in  their  interiors,  a  number  of  secret  rooms  accessible  only  to 
the  priests  and  members  of  the  royal  family. 

An  entrance  to  the  interior  of  one  of  the  pylons  is  shown 
on  the  left.      The  general  treatment  around   the   door   and 


14 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


over  it  is  precisely  the  same,  but  on  a  smaller  scale,  as  the 
main  entrance  to  the  temple  and  the  general  character  of  the 
propylon  illustrated  in  Fig.  6. 

A  better  idea  of  the  massiveness  of  these  pylons  may  be 
obtained  from  Fig.  9,  which  is  an  illustration  of  the  temple 
of  Edfou,  showing  the  taper  of  the  walls  from  the  ground 
upwards,  a  characteristic  of  all  Egyptian  architecture.  This 
illustration  is  taken  from  above  the  side  walls  of  the  temple, 


FIG.  9 

so  that  the  columns  at  the  entrance  of  the  hypostyle  hall 
at  the  rear  of  the  court  may  be  seen. 

20.  In  Fig.  10  is  shown  the  plan  of  the  Ramesseum,  a 
temple  built  by,  and  named  after,  Rameses,  who  was  king 
of  Egypt  about  1500  B.  C.  Here  the  sanctuary  is  shown 
at  a,  surrounded  by  a  number  of  smaller  apartments  that 
were  used  by  the  priests  and  members  of  the  royal  family, 
both  as  places  for  their  mysterious  devotions  and  as  royal 
residences,  the  king  and  his  immediate  relatives  being  con- 
sidered earthly  representatives  of  the  gods.  The  sanctuary 
contained  the  shrine,  and  was  entered  through  either  of  two 
portals,  one  from  the  hypostyle  hall  b,  and  the  other 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


communicating  with  one  of  the  sacred  apartments.     The  roof 
of  the  hypostyle  hall  b  was  supported  by  two  sets  of  columns, 


FIG.  10 


the  central  ones  being  longer  than  those  on  each  side,  in  order 
to  provide  a  clearstory  for  the  admission  of  light  and  air. 

This  is  more  clearly  shown  in  Fig.  11,  which  was  photo- 
graphed from  a  model  of  the  great  hypostyle  hall  at  Karnak. 


FIG.  11 

At  a  is  shown  the  double  row  of  tall  columns,  which  are  con- 
nected longitudinally  by  the  stone  lintels  b,  in  order  to  receive 


16  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

the  edges  of  the  stone  slabs  c,  which  form  the  roof  over  the 
nave,  or  central  portion,  of  the  temple.  On  each  side  of 
the  columns  a  are  the  shorter  columns  d,  which  are  con- 
nected transversely  by  the  lintels  e,  and  the  inside  row, 
longitudinally  by  the  lintel  /,  to  support  the  roof  slabs  g 
in  the  same  manner  as  over  the  nave.  An  open  space  h  is 
thus  left  to  admit  light  to  the  interior  of  the  hall  and  to 
form  a  clearstory  similar  to  the  same  detail  in  the  cathedrals 
erected  in  Europe  many  centuries  later. 

21.  This  system  of  supporting  the  roof  is  based  on  the 
first  of  the  two  principles  of  construction  previously  referred 
to,  namely,  the  lintel.     The  spacing  of  the  supports  being 
governed  entirely  by  the  length  of  lintel  the  builders  were 
able  to  quarry,  the  columns  are  exceedingly  close  together, 
and  this  is  the  case  not  only  in  Egyptian  structures,  but  in 
all  architectural  edifices  in  which  "the  lintel  system  of  con- 
struction" prevails.     For  this  reason,  large  apartments  were 
never  entirely  roofed  over,  but  were  open  to  the  sky,  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  as  shown  at  c,  Fig.  10,  where  the  shaded 
portions  indicate  the  covering  roof. 

The  space  shown  at  c  is  the  inner  court  of  the  temple, 
from  which  the  hypostyle  hall  must  be  entered.  On  each 
side  of  this  inner  court  is  a  double  row  of  columns  support- 
ing a  roof  extending  from  the  side  walls,  while  at  the  back 
is  a  single  row  of  columns  and  a  row  of  square  piers  that 
carry  a  portion  of  the  roof  extending  over  from  the  hypo- 
style  hall.  Another  row  of  square  piers  carries  the  roof 
over  the  front  end  of  this  inner  court,  which,  with  the 
other  partial  coverings,  surrounds  the  court  with  a  narrow, 
projecting  roof  on  all  four  sides. 

22.  The  effect  of   this  treatment,  which  was  imposing 
in  itself,  was  enhanced  by  colossal   statues  carved  on   the 
faces  of  the  square  piers.     Three  flights  of  stone  steps  led 
to  the  level  of   the  hypostyle  hall,  the  floor  of  which  was 
considerably  above  the  level  of  the  inner  court.     Flanking 
the  steps  of  the  inner  court  c,  and  against  the  square  piers 
that  support  the  roof  were  colossal  carved-stone  images  of 


17 

1  L  T   303 — 3 


18 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


Egyptian  deities.  It  is  a  striking  characteristic  of  Egyptian 
architecture  and  sculpture  that  everything  shall  be  on  a 
colossal  scale.  This  characteristic  is  carried  out  in  the 
pyramids,  the  sphinx,  and  in  the  colossal  statues  of  Memnon, 
Fig.  12,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Nile  at  Thebes.  These 
figures  inspire  one  with  awe  simply  by  their  magnitude,  and 
as  adjuncts  to  the  complex  ceremonies  of  the  Egyptian 

religious  rites  must 
certainly  have  impressed 
the  people  with  the 
insignificance  of  mere 
man.  The  entrance  court d 
was  a  comparatively  plain 
enclosure,  with  columns 
on  each  side  and  a  single 
flight  of  steps  leading  up 
to  the  floor  of  the  inner 
court.  This  court  was 
entered  through  a  narrow 
portal  flanked  on  each  side 
by  the  massive  pylons  e. 

23.     Obelisks.— The 

obelisks  in  front  of  a 
temple  as  at  Edfou,  Fig.  7, 
are  characteristic  of 
Egyptian  art.  The  ex- 
ample in  Fig.  13  is  one  of 
a  pair  of  obelisks  known 
as  "Cleopatra's  needles," 
and  is  shown  as  it  stood 
in  the  city  of  Alexandria, 
for  nearly  2,000  years,  with  its  companion,  before  the  entrance 
of  the  temple  at  Heliopolis.  It  is  67  feet  high,  and  7  feet 
7  inches  square  at  the  base.  It  was  removed  to  Alexandria 
by  the  Roman  emperor  Augustus  just  before  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era.  In  1878  this  obelisk  was  transported  to 
New  York,  where  it  now  stands  on  a  mound  in  Central  Park. 


FIG.  13 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  19 


ANALYTICAL    STUDY 


24.  Egyptian  temples  were  planned  entirely  for  interior 
effect.     The   dimly   lighted    hypostyle   hall  was   a  forest  of 
columns,  producing  a  deep  feeling  of  grandeur  and  mystery. 
The  temples  were  not  always  symmetrical,  and  being  erected 
at  irregular  intervals,  they  expressed  the  ideas  of  different 
generations   quite  as   much   as  do  the  cathedrals  that  were 
erected  centuries  later.     See  Fig.  10. 

WALLS 

25.  The  buildings  were  surrounded  by  walls  of  tremen- 
dous thickness  that  were  usually  built  of  granite.     The  faces 
of  the  walls   sloped   inwards,  and  the  tops  were  surmounted 
by   a   massive   concave    cornice    over   a   rolled   molding,  as 
shown  at  the  top  of  the  propylon  in  Fig.  6. 


ROOFS 

26.     The  roofs  consisted  of  massive  flat  stones,  supported 
on  lintels  between  the  columns,  as  shown  in  Fig.  11. 


COLUMN'S 

27.  The  columns  were  thick  and  massive,  their  height  sel- 
dom being  more  than  six  times  their  thickness.  Five  general 
designs  were  used,  all  derived  from  some  conventionalized 
form  of  the  lotus,  papyrus,  or  palm.  The  earliest  columns 
were  square  or  polygonal,  as  in  the  tombs  of  Beni-Hassan, 
Fig.  4.  Subsequently,  they  became  round,  tapered  toward 
the  top,  and  spread  out  into  an  enormous  bell-shaped  capital 
that  supported  the  roof.  They  were  carved  and  painted  to 
represent  the  full  blossom  of  the  papyrus  or  palm,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  14  (a)  and  (r),  or  to  represent  the  lotus  blossom,  as 
at  (b).  The  edge  of  the  shaft  at  the  bottom  was  sometimes 


20 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


rounded  off  and  decorated  with  a  pointed  ornament  repre- 
senting the  large  leaves  around  the  sprouting  lotus,  above 


FIG.  10 

which  the  top  of  the  column  would  be  contracted  to  form 
a  conventional  lotus  bud  under  a  square  block, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  15  (a).  Occasionally,  as  at 
Karnak,  Fig.  11,  the  entire  column  was 
decorated  in  color  with  hieroglyphs,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  15  (b) .  The  corners  of  the  four-  and 
eight-sided  columns  were  sometimes  rounded 
off,  while  the  plain  sides  were  reeded,  thus 
giving  the  appearance  of  a  bunch  of  stems, 
which  were  ostensibly  held  in  place  by  a  num- 
ber of  bands,  as  shown  in  Fig.  15  (a). 

28.  Another  form  of  column  had  the  upper 
portion  designed  to  represent  a  naos,  or  cell, 
similar  to  the  sanctuary,  with  a  miniature 
entrance  and  pylon  on  each  side,  under 
which  were  carved  heads  of  Hathor  or  Isis, 
two  prominent  deities  in  Egyptian  mythology. 
These  columns  are  known  as  Hathor-headed  or 
Isis-headed,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  are  as 
shown  in  Fig.  16,  which  illustrates  a  portion 
of  the  temple  of  Hathor  at  Dendarah.  Fig.  17 

shows  a  restoration  of  one  of  these  columns,  from  which  the 

details  may  be  more  clearly  understood. 


•>'.. 


FIG.  17 


noil 


161    I  I.  T  101.  ,W     §  50 


FIG    r> 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  21 

In  the  architecture  of  Egypt,  there  were  no  established 
rules  of  proportion.  The  height  and  projection  of  the 
capital  bear  no  fixed  relation  to  the  length  or  diameter  of 
the  column,  as  do  these  details  in  later  architectural  styles, 
and  the  construction  being  almost  entirely  of  stone,  the 
columns  were  placed  very  close  together,  so  as  to  receive 
the  lintels  and  slabs  that  formed  the  roof. 


OPENINGS 

29.  The  openings  were  uniform,   in   general  style,   and 
resembled    the    propylon    in    general    treatment.     Windows 
were  rare,  as  the  clearstory  (see  Fig.  11)  admitted  sufficient 
light  for  the  mysterious  rites  that  were  performed  in  the 
temples. 

MOLDINGS 

30.  Small  decorative  details  called  moldings  are  used 

to  separate  architectural  members  in  a  building.  They  con- 
sist of  plane  or  cylindrical  surfaces  run  in  bands  vertically 
or  horizontally.  In  Egyptian  architecture,  there  are  few 
moldings,  but  each  is  thoroughly  characteristic  of  the 
style.  The  principal  ones  are  the  large  concave  member 
crowning  the  walls  of  the  temples  and  pylons,  Figs.  6 
and  7,  and  the  smaller  roll,  or  band,  separating  this  crown- 
ing member  from  the  lower  wall. 


ORNAMENT 

31.  Egyptian  ornament  was  symbolic  and  an  important 
factor  in  the  architectural  style.  It  was  represented  in  all 
three  classes,  based  on  few  types,  and  in  many  cases  is  so 
conventionalized  that  the  type  cannot  be  determined. 

It  is  of  importance  that  the  student  should  thoroughly 
understand  the  difference  between  style,  class,  and  type.  The 
term  stylo  is  used  to  indicate  the  period  or  nationality  of 
the  ornament  or  architecture,  as  the  Egyptian  style;  the  term 
class  is  applied  when  it  is  desired  to  indicate  a  subdivision 


22  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

of  some  style,  as  the  constructive  class  of  Egyptian  orna- 
ment; and  the  term  type  is  used  to  refer  to  the  natural  form 
from  which  the  ornament  is  derived. 

32.  Types. — The  types  derived  from  the  vegetable  king- 
dom were  the  lotus,  papyrus,  and  palm.  The  most  con- 
spicuous type  in  Egyptian  art  is  the  lotus,  a  plant  growing  on 
the  banks  of  the  Nile  and  somewhat  resembling  the  pond  lily, 
but  differing  from  it  in  coloring.  It  stands  high  out  of  the 
water,  as  shown  in  Fig.  18,  with  petals  of  a  rich  purple 
and  a  heart  of  deep  orange.  The  lotus  was  a  sacred  flower, 
and  as  an  offering  to  the  gods  was  conspicuous  in  the  highest 
forms  of  worship. 


FIG.  IS 

In  each  architectural  style,  some  one  particular  vegetable 
type  seems  to  stand  out  conspicuously  in  the  decorations. 
In  Egypt,  the  lotus  was  used  in  a  multitude  of  different  forms 
in  almost  every  decorative  scheme  throughout  its  history. 
In  fact  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  a  characteristically  Egyptian 
design  that  does  not  introduce  some  suggestion  derived  from 
this  flower.  The  devotion  of  the  Egyptians  to  this  particular 
emblem  amounts  almost  to  worship.  It  was  painted  on  their 
walls,  mummy  cases,  and  coffins;  it  was  carved  in  their 
monuments,  temples,  and  tombs;  it  was  wrought  in  precious 
metals  and  worn  as  jewelry;  it  was  woven  in  their  linen 
garments,  and  in  fact  it  was  everywhere. 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


23 


The  papyrus  plant,  shown  in  Fig.  19,  was  also  used 
largely  in  Egyptian  art;  it 
was  associated  with  the  Nile, 
on  whose  banks  it  grew,  but 
not  to  such  an  extent  as  the 
lotus.  It  was  the  first  material 
used  to  manufacture  paper, 
which  derives  its  name  from 
this  plant. 

Feathers  presented  another 
type  frequently  met  with  in 
ornament,  and  these,  with 
some  birds,  particularly  the 
vulture  or  buzzard;  the  asp,  a 
small,  venomous  serpent;  and 
the  beetle,  were  about  all  the 
types  borrowed  from  the 
animal  kingdom. 

33.  winged  j)isk.— The 
o  r  n  a  m  e  n  t  known  as  the 
winged  disk,  Fig.  20,  con- 
sists of  a  solar  disk,  supported 
on  each  side  by  an  asp,  the 
royal  symbol  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Egypt.  The  wide  out- 
stretching vulture's  wings  symbolize  the  untiring  activity 
of  the  sun  in  its  beneficence;  hence,  a  divine  protecting 


FIG.  20 


power.  It  is  sometimes  varied  to  include  the  figure  of  a 
goddess  or  the  body  of  a  vulture,  in  place  of  the  disk,  and 
the  wings  are  occasionally  curved  upwards. 


24 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


34.  The  Scarabeeus. — The  scarabeeus,  Fig.  21,  con- 
sisted of  a  beetle  holding  a  sun  disk  between  its  front  feet  and 
a  small  ball  between  its  hind  feet.  It  was  identified  with  the 
rising  sun,  and  was  emblematic  of  creation  and  resurrection, 
or  new  birth.  Its  exact  significance  is 
somewhat  complicated,  as  are  in  fact  all 
Egyptian  emblems;  but,  owing  to  the 
habits  of  the  beetle,  slowly  developing 
from  a  grub  through  various  stages  to  a 
full-grown  insect,  it  is  emblematic  of 
progress  and  evolution. 


FIG.  21 


35.  Wall  Decorations.— The  wall 
decorations  usually  consisted  of 
hieroglyphic  representations  of  some  historical  event.  In 
private  tombs,  the  life  of  the  occupant  was  represented,  and 
in  temples,  the  life  of  the  gods  or  the  history  of  the  nation 
was  depicted.  Each  representation  was  not  only  a  detail  of 
the  wall  decoration,  but  a  hieroglyphic  record  of  a  fact. 
Sometimes  it  was  carved  in  the  surface 
of  the  walls,  and  sometimes  merely 
painted;  and,  occasionally,  it  was  both 
carved  and  painted.  It  was  always  most 
conventional,  and  certain  details,  such  as 
the  lotus  and  papyrus,  were  represented 
in  the  strictest  geometrical  arrangement, 
usually  showing  the  bud,  blossom,  and 
fruit  in  regular  order,  typifying  the 
development  of  the  entire  plant. 

In  Fig.  22  observe  the  straight,  stiff 
stem  and  trumpet-shaped  blossom,  the 
sharp-pointed  petals  of  the  calyx,  and 
the  geometrical  arrangement  of  the 
entire  plant,  with  all  its  distinguishing  characteristics  empha- 
sized to  produce  the  simplest  and  severest  conventionalism. 

Egyptian  carved  ornament  of  this  character  is  nearly 
always  in  low  relief,  and  is  sometimes  merely  incised  or 
outlined  in  the  surface  of  the  wall,  as  shown  in  Fig.  23. 


FIG.  22 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


On  work  executed  in  a  later  period,  the  background  is  some- 
times cut  away,  leaving  the  carved  ornament  in  full  relief, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  24. 

In  Figs.  25  and  27  are  shown  several  characteristic  wall 
decorations,  wherein  the  lotus,  papyrus,  and  other  types 
are  introduced  in  great  variety,  showing  the  changes  that 
can  be  worked  on  a  few  ideas.  These  were  introduced  in  the 
decorative  schemes  of  the  tombs  and  temples,  and  give  a  fair 
idea  of  the  general  wall  treatment. 


FIG.  23 


FIG.  24 


The  scroll  borders  at  (a)  and  (b] ,  Fig.  25,  represent  con- 
ventionalized waves  of  the  Nile,  and  were  frequently  used 
in  a  multitude  of  forms  as  borders,  or  frames,  to  wall  panels 
filled  in  with  surface  ornament. 

The  border  shown  at  (/)  is  taken  from  a  narrow  frieze  in 
one  of  the  tombs.  The  lotus  is  here  used  in  two  forms, 
with  a  geometrical  arrangement  above  and  below.  Another 
border  generally  used  in  a  vertical  position  is  shown  at  (g}. 
Here,  the  lotus  blossom  is  introduced  in  the  central  strip, 
which  is  flanked  on  each  side  by  a  series  of  disks. 

At  (c] ,  (d),  (i?),  and  (h]  are  shown  forms  of  surface  deco- 
ration that  were  used  within  the  panels  surrounded  by  the 


26 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


27 


preceding  and  many  other  designs  of  borders.  No  type  is 
traceable  in  (c)  or  U),but  in  (</)  and  (/*),the  conventionalized 
lotus  blossom  is  used  four  times  in  each  circle.  Egyptian 
surface  decoration  was  always  geometrical.  The  minor  sub- 
divisions were  always  circles,  squares,  spirals,  triangles  with 
straight  or  curved  sides,  or  an  interweaving  of  straight  and 
curved  lines,  as  in  (c)  and  (c) .  Wall  decorations  treated  in 
this  geometrical  manner  are  called  diapers,  and  are  found 
in  all  periods  or  decorative  art. 

3(>.  Rosette  Forms. — The  rosette  forms  shown  in 
Fig.  20  are  some  of  the  many  observed  in  Egyptian  orna- 
ment. At  (a]  is  shown  a 
simple  circle  with  an  inner 
circle,  and  the  space  between 
them  is  divided  by  straight 
lines  into  eight  equal  parts. 
The  transition  from  this  form 
to  the  form  shown  at  (b}  con- 
sists merely  of  a  notching  of 
the  edge  of  the  outer  circle 
where  the  lines  intersect  the 
circumference;  (c)  is  the  same 
as  (b) ,  except  that  the  divi- 
ding lines  are  arranged  in 
pairs,  thus  making  each  seg- 
ment independent  and  by 
itself.  From  (c)  to  (</),  the 
segments  are  made  narrower, 
until  they  are  very  nearly  the 
size  of  the  spaces  between  them,  and  at  (e)  the  extreme  limit  is 
reached.  Here,  what  might  be  considered  the  petals  of  the  floral 
device  are  separated  from  the  center  and  from  one  another 
entirely,  and  become  independent  elements  of  the  design. 

37.  The  diapers  and  borders  shown  in  Fig.  27  give 
some  idea  of  the  color  combination  used  by  the  Egyptian 
artists.  Here  are  found  the  same  types  that  characterized 
all  Egyptian  ornament,  but  used  in  many  different  ways, 


FIG.  2f. 


2*  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

which  give  variety  and  charm  to  successive  combinations  of 
the  same  details.  At  (a)  and  (b)  the  predominating  types 
are  the  spiral  and  the  lotus  blossom  and  rosette  combined 
with  the  scarabaeus  in  one  case  and  a  hieroglyphic  inscription 
in  the  other;  yet  similar  as  are  these  elementary  details,  the 
decorative  effect  is  entirely  different.  At  (c),  the  spiral 
lotus  and  the  rosette  are  again  combined,  and  another  design 
totally  unlike  the  preceding  is  the  result.  Although  the 
spiral  is  the  only  prominent  element  evident  in  (d] ,  the 
inclosed  form  is  undoubtedly  derived  from  the  papyrus. 
The  border  decoration  shown  at  (<?)  is  composed  entirely  of 
lotus  buds  and  blossoms,  arranged  alternately.  These  are 
only  a  few  of  an  almost  endless  variety  of  wall  decorations 
based  on  these  simple  characteristic  types. 

There  is  a  sharp  distinction  between  what  is  termed  diaper 
treatment  and  wall  painting.  The  former  consists  invari- 
ably of  small,  geometrical  subdivisions  presented  in  a  repeat- 
ing pattern  in  all  directions,  while  the  latter  term  is  applied 
to  large  surfaces  treated  in  a  pictorial  manner,  and  not 
repeating  in  design. 

38.  Wall  Paintings* — In  Fig.  28  is  shown  a  painted 
wall  ornament  from  the  tomb  of  Seti  I.  It  represents  the 
"sacred  bark,"  the  ceremonies  connected  with  which  were 
an  exceedingly  complicated  but  important  branch  of  the 
religious  devotions  of  the  priests.  This  device  frequently 
appears  in  the  sculpture  and  paintings  of  the  tombs,  and 
usually  represents  the  funeral  of  one  of  the  gods.  Every- 
thing is  arranged  in  a  most  orderly  manner,  as  will  be 
observed,  and  every  detail  is  placed  to  convey  a  certain 
significance.  It  would  be  impossible  here  to  go  into  all  the 
explanations  connected  with  Egyptian  hieroglyphic  ornament, 
but  this  illustration  is  sufficient  to  show  the  general  subdivision 
of  the  walls  and  the  completeness  of  the  illustrated  idea. 

The  civilization  of  Ancient  Egypt  presents  nothing  in 
common  with  that  of  the  present  day  and  the  Egyptian  style 
therefore  finds  little  application  in  modern  architectural  con- 
structions. 


EGYPTIAN    DECORATION 


8/)0  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  29 

Occasionally   it   is   used  in  the  design  of  a  tomb  or  of  a 
building  devoted  to   Masonic   or  other  secret  society  rites. 


FIG.  28 

Then  its  application  is  appropriate  either  on  account  of  its 
historical  associations  or  its  suggestion  of  mystery. 


REVIEW    EXERCISES 

1.  What  does  the  term  conventionalized  mean? 

2.  What  is  the  distinction  between  the  terms:    (a)   style,  (l>)  class, 
and  (c)   type? 

3.  What  influences  must  be  taken  into  consideration   in   studying 
an  architectural  style?     Describe  the  effect  of  each. 

4.  For  what  modern  application  is  the  Egyptian  style  suitable? 

5.  Make  a  design  in  color  for  a  wall  diaper  in  the  Egyptian  style, 
using  the  types  herein  described,  or  other  ones  similar  to  them,  but 
not  a  copy  of  the  illustrations.     The  design  should  be  not  less  than 
(i  in.  X  (>  in.,  and  should  be  made  on  a  sheet  of  white  drawing  paper 
!•  in.  X  12  in.     The  design  need  not  be  entirely  colored,  but  a  section 
of  it  should  be  completed  to  show  the  scheme  and  coloring. 

6.  Make  a  design  in  color  for  a  column  in  the  Egyptian  style,  but 
do  not  copy  it  directly  from  any  illustration;  or,  make  a  drawing  of  a 
propylon  similar  to  Fig.  6,  but  complete  it  with  all  details  restored  and 
colored  and  hieroglyphics  incised,  as  shown  in  Fig.  23.     The  design 
is  to  be  10  inches  high  on  a  sheet  9  in.  X  12  in. 


30  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


ASIATIC    ARCHITECTURE 

(2000  B.  C.) 


INFLUENCES 

39.  Geographical. — The  map,  Fig.  29,  shows  a  portion 
of  Western  Asia  including  the  valley  between  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  rivers.     The  land  watered  by  these  rivers  was 
very  fertile,  and  the  country  between  them,  known  as  the 
plain  of  Mesopotamia,   was  irrigated  by  canals  extending 
from  Babylon  to  the  city  of  Nineveh. 

Civilization  in  this  country  started  at  the  mouth  of  these 
rivers,  where  they  emptied  into  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  spread 
toward  their  sources,  just  as  Egyptian  civilization  formed 
along  the  Nile.  In  Western  Asia,  however,  civilization 
spread  toward  the  north,  while  in  Egypt  it  spread  toward 
the  south. 

40.  Geological. — This  entire  section,  with  the  exception 
of  Assyria,  possessed  no  stone  and  grew  very  little  vegeta- 
tion of  the  character  suitable  for  building  materials.     The 
soil  was  alluvial  and  readily  baked  into  bricks,  which  formed 
the  principal  building  material.     Sun-baked  bricks  were  used 
for  the  body  of  the  walls,  while  tile,  or  kiln-burned  bricks, 
were  occasionally  used  as  a  facing.     In  Assyria,  however, 
some  stone  was  used,  and  the  inside  and  outside  facings  of 
the  walls  were   finished  with  either  alabaster  or  limestone 
slabs,  on  which  were  carved  allegorical  figures  in  low  relief. 
These  carvings  and  the  inscriptions  on  the  stones  are  of  vast 
importance  historically,  as  they  convey  much  information  con- 
cerning the  character  of  the  buildings  of  the  period,  although 
the  buildings  themselves  have  long  since  crumbled  away. 

41.  Climatic. — In   Chaldea,  the  country  was   swampy 
and    unhealthy,    and    the   entire    region   was    infested   with 


50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


31 


venomous  insects,  so  that  in  the  cities  it  was  necessary  to 
construct  all  buildings  on  platforms  so  as  to  prevent  insects 
and  reptiles  from  crawling  into  them.  During  the  rainy  sea- 
son, too,  there  were  heavy  floods  near  the  rivers,  rendering 
it  further  necessary  to  raise  the  communities  above  the  annual 
inundations.  In  Persia,  however,  there  was  a  high  plain, 
and  there  this  elevated  construction  was  not  required. 

42.  Religion*. — The    people    of    this    section    were 
extremely  superstitious.     They  worshiped  the  sun,  the  moon, 
and  the  powers  of  nature — fire,  \vind,  thunder,  etc.     Temples 
and   images  of  gods 

were  not   common 

among  them,  as  their 

sacrifices  to  the   sun 

and     other     celestial 

bodies  were  made  in 

the   open   air.     The 

entrances  to  their 

palaces  were  guarded 

by    ferocious-looking 

stone    bulls    with 

human    heads,    Fig. 

30,   that   represented 

some  genius  or  beneficent  power  emanating  from  their  ideas 

of  deity. 

43.  Political    and    Historical. — The    sculptures    and 
carved  inscriptions  give  a  very  clear  idea  of  the  character  of 
the   people   and   customs   of    the   period.     The    inscriptions 
were  formed  in  a  peculiar  kind  of  wedge-shaped  characters, 
called  cuneiform,  and  records  were  made  by  pressing  small 
wedge-shaped    devices    into   the  soft   clay    before  baking  it 
into  bricks.     Instead  of  paper,  small  tiles  and  tablets  were 
used   for  recording   facts,    and   so   much    in   this    form   and 
character  was  written  that  large  libraries  were  formed,  the 
books  of  which  consisted  of  burnt  tiles. 

44.  The  history  of  this  section  can  be  determined  only 
by  the  translation  of  the  cuneiform  characters,  which,  up  to 


FIG.  30 


32  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

the  present  time,  has  only  been  imperfectly  carried  out. 
The  earliest  king  mentioned  in  the  cuneiform  inscription 
reigned  4500  B.  C.,  and  the  kingdom  established  extended 
north,  along  the  valley  of  the  Tigris.  About  1700  B.  C., 
however,  Assyria  asserted  her  power  over  the  rest  of  the 
empire  and  became  a  ruling  influence  in  Western  Asia.  An 
Assyrian  king  named  Sargon  defeated  the  Egyptians  and  the 
Philistines,  who  were  allied  with  them,  and  occupied  Egypt. 
This  may  have  introduced  Egyptian  influences  into  their 
architecture.  About  672  B.  C.,  the  Egyptians  conquered  the 
Assyrians  and  shook  off  their  yoke.  Nineveh  was  destroyed 
in  609  B.  C.,  and  the  Assyrian  kingdom  was  divided.  Baby- 
lon became  the  leading  city  until  taken  by  the  Persians  in 
539  B.  C.  The  country  remained  under  the  rule  of  the 
Persians  until  333  B.  C.,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Greeks 
under  Alexander  the  Great.  Thereafter  its  history  is  merged 
with  that  of  Greece.  

EXAMPLES 

45.  The  only  buildings  of  which  a  vestige  is  left  at  the 
present  day  to  enlighten  us  to  the  art  of  Western  Asia,  are 
the  palaces.  The  civilization  of  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  rivers  was  next  in  antiquity  to  that  of  Egypt,  but 
was  far  inferior  to  that  country  in  art  and  architecture.  The 
subjects  of  the  two  kingdoms — Chaldea  and  Assyria — that 
ruled  this  valley  differed  widely  in  character  and  culture,  but 
the  lack  of  good  building  material  and  the  flatness  of  the 
country  imposed  on  both  nations  similar  restrictions  of  con- 
ception, form,  and  material.  Not  a  tomb  nor  a  temple  of 
these  ancient  nations  stands  today  to  enlighten  us  on  the 
details  of  their  system  of  construction,  but  the  remains  of 
their  palaces,  especially  those  of  Assyria,  show  a  scale  of 
magnificence  that  is  simply  astounding,  though  these  palaces 
were  erected  of  brick,  the  poor  quality  of  which  prevented 
the  builders  from  carrying  their  structures  to  any  great 
height. 

Elevation  above  the  level  plain  of  the  valley  was  attained 
by  first  erecting  immense  terraces,  or  mounds,  which  were 


50 


33 


faced  with  stone  slabs  or  hard-burned  bricks,  and  on  these 
mounds  building's  of  moderate  height  were  constructed.  The 
absence  of  stone  suitable  for  columns,  and  the  difficulty 
of  procuring  beams  of  long  span,  made  broad  halls  or  large, 
covered  rooms  practically  impossible,  although,  unlike  the 
Egyptians,  they  used  the  arch  to  span  the  principal  openings, 
and  it  formed  an  important  element  in  their  style.  The  plans 


(6) 

FIR. 31 

of  these  palaces,  therefore,  consisted  of  a  series  of  long 
corridors  and  small  cells.  The  interior  walls  were  wain- 
scoted to  a  height  of  8  or  9  feet  with  alabaster  slabs  richly 
carved  in  low  relief  to  represent  hunting  scenes,  battles, 
tribute  to  the  kings,  and  glorification  of  the  gods,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  31.  Plastered  walls  were  painted  in  brilliant  colors, 
and  every  art  known  to  these  people  was  employed  to  make 
their  palaces  a  maze  of  richness  and  architectural  splendor. 

1  L  T  303—4 


34 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


46.  The  system  of  construction  was  simple.  The  clay 
walls,  faced  with  alabaster  slabs,  enameled  tile,  or  hard-burned 
bricks,  were  roofed  over  with  cedar  beams,  and  the  roofs 
were  paved  with  tiles  to  form  terraces  or  roof  gardens. 
These  are  referred  to  in  ancient  writings  as  the  "Hanging 
Gardens  of  Babylon."  Light  was  admitted  through  small 
windows  close  to  the  ceiling,  and  usually  certain  rooms  in 
the  interior  of  the  palace  were  entirely  windowless.  Even 
at  the  present  day  the  inhabitants  of  these  districts  take 

refuge  from  the  torrid  heat  of 
the  summer  midday  in  window- 
less  apartments,  lighted  only  by 
lamps.  Above  the  wainscots 
that  line  the  courts  and  corridors 
were  wide  friezes  of  enameled 
brick,  richly  ornamented  with 
various  symbolic  forms,  used  as 
decorative  motives.  Of  these 
the  most  frequent  were  the 
"sacred  tree,"  Fig.  32,  the 
winged  bull,  Fig.  30,  and  other 
mythological  monsters, 
together  with  palmettes  or  fan- 
shaped  floral  designs,  and  the 
lotus  blossom.  The  latter, 
which  were  used  largely  around 
the  archivolts  over  the  arched 
entrance  gates,  were  probably 
derived  from  Egypt.  The  most  characteristic  details,  how- 
ever, were  the  winged  bulls.  Though  of  tremendous  pro- 
portion, every  part  was  minutely  wrought,  even  to  the  details 
of  the  head-dress,  the  hair,  the  feathers  of  the  wings,  and  the 
anatomy,  as  shown  in  Fig.  30.  The  worst  feature  of  the 
Assyrian  constructions  was  their  perishable  character.  With 
columns  and  roofs  of  wood,  covered  with  several  feet  of  earth 
to  keep  out  the  heat,  and  walls  of  simple  clay — the  ravages 
of  time  caused  their  identities  to  become  buried  in  their  own 
materials. 


FIG.  32 


£50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  35 


ANALYTICAL,   STUDY 


PLANS 

,  47.  Assyrian  palaces  were  planned  with  open  central 
courts  and  long,  narrow  rooms  and  halls.  They  were  raised  on 
platforms,  or  terraces,  from  30  to  50  feet  in  height.  Egyptian 
temples  were  planned  solely  for  interior  effect,  while  Assyrian 
palaces  were  designed  for  both  interior  and  exterior  effect. 


WALLS 

48.  The  walls  of  the  Assyrian  palaces  were  constructed 
of  brick  and  were  faced  with  stone  slabs,  whereas  the  walls 
of  the  Egyptian  temples  were  of  solid  granite.  In  Assyria, 
the  brick  walls  alone  remain,  the  columns,  which  were  of 
wood,  having  long  since  perished.  In  Persia,  the  walls, 
which  were  thin,  have  crumbled  away,  but  the  massive  blocks 
that  flanked  the  openings,  the  immense  stone  columns,  and 
the  marble  stairways  still  remain. 


ROOFS 

49.  The  roofs  consisted  of  wooden  beams  supported  on 
wooden  columns,  and  clay  walls  tiled  over  on  the  outside. 
The  more  important  rooms  were  arched  over,  or  vaulted, 
with  brick;  whereas,  in  Egypt,  the  roofs  were  invariably  of 
stone  slabs  supported  on  stone  lintels. 


COLUMNS 

50.  In  the  earlier  periods,  the  columns  were  made  of  wood, 
but  in  the  later  periods  some  of  them  were  built  of  stone. 
The  most  ancient  cities,  being  in  Chaldea  and  Assyria,  where 
there  was  no  stone,  possessed  buildings  only  of  wood  and 
brick  or  tile.  However,  when  the  Persians  returned  from 
Egypt,  they  built  at  Persepolis,  where  limestone  abounded, 


36 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


columns  of  stone  to  support  the 
roofs  of  their  palaces,  tombs,  and 
temples.  The  capitals  of  these 
columns  were  characteristic,  and 
consisted  of  the  double  horse, 
double  bull,  double  unicqrn,  double 
griffin,  etc.,  under  which  a  scroll 
device  was  sometimes  introduced 
as  shown  in  Fig.  33  (c).  The 
capitals  (a)  and  (b)  are  placed 
abruptly  on  top  the  shafts  without 
any  intervening  moldings  or  prep- 
aration, but  in  (c]  the  top  of  the 
column  has  been  varied  to  present 
a  transectional  condition  from  the 
round  reeded  shaft  to  the  animal 
from  above.  The  beams  of  the 
roof  rested  on  the  heads  of  the 
animals  in  one  direction,  as  shown 
at  (c),  and  on  their  backs  and 
between  their  heads  when  running 
in  the  opposite  direction,  as  shown 
at  (b)  and  (c),  while  different 
animal  forms  were  used  for  the 
capitals  in  different  cases,  and 
some  were  supported  on  scrolls 
while  others  were  not,  the  bases 
were  almost  universally  of  the  type 
shown  in  (a)  and  (b}.  The  scrolls 
shown  at  (c)  are  interesting  owing 
to  the  later  appearance  of  a  similar 
device  in  Greek  capitals;  some  of 
the  Assyrian  sculptures  show  the 
scroll  device  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion across  the  top  of  the  column, 
but  no  examples  of  that  form  exist 
in  the  structures  of  which  sufficient 
material  remains  to  study  from. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  37 

OPENINGS 

51.  The  temples  were  lighted  by  means  of  a  clearstory 
similar   to   that   in   the   Egyptian   temples,   but   the   palaces 
depended  more  on  their  doorways  to  let  in  a  flood  of  light, 
where  necessary,  and  consequently  they  made  these  openings 
of  enormous  size. 

MOLDINGS 

52.  As  in  Egypt,  the  architects  of  Western  Asia  made 
little  use  of  formal  moldings.     Plain  sinkings  were  used  in 
the  bases  and  capitals   of  the   columns,  with   an  occasional 
projecting  rib  or  incised  groove. 


ORNAMENT 

53.  The  ornament  of  Assyria  was  probably  borrowed 
from  Egypt,  as  there  are  many  points  of  resemblance  in  the 
two  styles.  The  sculpture  of  the  Assyrians  seems  to  have 
been  a  development  of  that  of  the  Egyptians,  but  descended 
rather  than  advanced  in  scale  of  perfection.  Egyptian 
sculpture  degenerated  toward  the  end  of  the  4th  century 
B.  C.,  as  it  expressed  an 
unnatural  swelling  of  the 
limbs  that  was  at  first  only 
lightly  indicated  but  gradu- 
ally became  almost  exagger- 
a t e d — t he  conventional 
having  been  abandoned  for 


an  imperfect  attempt   at  the 

natural.  In  Assyrian  sculpture,  the  attempt  was  carried  still 
further,  and,  while  the  general  arrangement  of  a  subject  and 
the  pose  of  a  single  figure  were  still  conventional,  an  attempt 
was  made  to  express  the  muscles  of  the  limbs  and  the 
rotundity  of  the  flesh  to  an  extent  that  destroyed  the  con- 
ventionalism of  the  whole.  In  all  art,  this  is  a  symptom  of 
decline.  Nature  should  be  idealized,  not  copied. 

Assyrian  ornament  is  not  based   altogether  on  the  same 
types  as  the  Egyptian,  but  is  represented  in  the  same  way. 


38  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

In  both  styles,  the  ornaments  appear  in  relief,  as  well  as 
painted,  in  the  nature  of  hieroglyphic  diagrams.  With  the 
exception  of  the  pineapple,  and  the  adaptation  of  the  Egyptian 
lotus,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  34,  Assyrian  ornament  does  not 
seem  to  be  based  on  any  natural  type. 

54.     The  religion  of  the  Assyrians  differed  widely  from 
that  of  the  Egyptians,  and,  although  their  combinations  of 


FIG.  35 

forms  somewhat  resemble  certain  of  the  Egyptian  deities, 
the  style  in  which  they  sculptured  them  was  below  the 
standard  of  art  and  practice  in  Egypt.  In  Fig.  35  is  shown 
an  example  of  this  work  representing  the  winged  deity  Asshur, 
in  which  may  be  seen  the  excessive  effort  to  represent  the 
rotundity  of  muscular  developments  just  mentioned.  The 
attempt  to  represent  the  muscular  characteristics  of  this 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  39 

figure  is  exceedingly  inartistic,  and,  although  the  attempt  to 
present  an  appearance  of  power  and  strength  is  well  carried 
out,  it  is  done  with  much  less  delicacy  and  refinement  than 
would  be  expected  if  the  work  were  an  example  of  Egyptian 
art.  The  vulture  head  and  wings  are  undoubtedly  borrowed 
from  Egypt,  and  the  pose  of  the  body  and  limbs  is  strongly 
suggestive  of  Egyptian  ideas.  The  position  of  the  hands 
seems  to  be  repeated  in  nearly  every  example  of  Assyrian 
ornament  where  the  figure  represents  a  deity,  and  is  similar  to 
certain  Egyptian  productions  of  the  kind,  except  that  the 
limbs  are  clumsy  and  the  molding  possesses  much  less 
refinement.  This  is  characteristic  of  all  Assyrian  sculpture. 
Brutal  strength  seems  to  have  been  of  more  importance  in 
many  cases  than  graceful  proportions.  The  details  of  every 
part,  however,  were  finely  wrought  and  no  item  of  the  orna- 
mental scheme  seemed  to  have  been  considered  of  lesser 
importance  than  another.  As  said  before,  the  pineapple 
seems  to  be  the  only  new  vegetable  type  introduced  into 
their  decorative  schemes.  It  is  apparent  as  the  fruit  on  the 
sacred  tree,  Fig.  32,  and  is  also  seen  in  the  right  hand  of  the 
deity  Asshur  in  Fig.  35.  Its  particular  significance  is  not 
known,  and  although  it  may  have  played  as  important  a  part 
in  the  Assyrian  devotion  as  the  lotus  did  in  the  Egyptian,  it 
was  not  developed  in  the  designs  of  other  countries  as  were 
the  devices  based  on  the  lotus  blossom.  The  Assyrian 
style  finds  no  place  in  modern  architectural  applications. 


40  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §5C 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 

(500  B.  C.  TO  150  B.  C.) 


INFLUENCES 

55.  Geographical. — The     map    of    Greece    shown    in 
Fig.  36  presents  a  small  country  projecting  into  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  which  washes  its  shores  on  three  sides.     There 
are  numerous  islands  scattered  about  its  coast,  and  many 
natural  harbors  that  the  natives  found  convenient  for  the 
development  of   trade  and  commerce.     The  country  itself 
was  active  on  account  of  the  population  concentrated  along 
its  seacoast,  but  the  mountainous  character  of  the  interior 
prevented  any  overland  means  of  communication  until  Greece 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Romans. 

56.  Geological. — The  principal   geological  product  of 
Greece  was  white  marble,  to  which  we  owe  much  for  the 
magnificent  development  of  our  artistic  taste.    White  marble 
is  the  best  material  known  for  monumental  buildings,  and 
was  found  in  great  abundance  in  certain  localities.     In  other 
parts  of  Greece,  buildings  were  constructed  of  bricks.     These 
were  occasionally  coated  with  a  cement  composed  of  marble 
dust   and   lime    and   would   take    as   high    a  polish  as  the 
marble  itself. 

57.  Climatic. — The    climate    of    Greece    varied    from 
extreme   tropical  heat  in  summer  to  the  severest  cold  in 
winter;  therefore,  her  architects  had  to  provide  against  the 
inclemency  of  these  seasons.     The  civilization  of  the  country 
was  unique,  situated  as   it  was  between  the  rigorous  sur- 
roundings of  Northern   Europe  and   the  passive  conditions 
of  the  Orient,  or  Southern  Asia,  and  the  Greeks  therefore 
worked  out  their  architectural  problems  with  the  energy  of 
the  one  and  the  deliberation  of  the  other  that  was  sure  to 
attain  the  highest  degree  of  perfection. 


H    1   ' 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  41 

58.  Religious. — The   Greek   religion   was   not  a  direct 
worship  of  idols,  but  of  the  phenomena  of  nature,  of  which 
the  gods  were  personifications.     Owing  to  the  isolation  of 
the  different   communities,   each   had   its  own  festivals  and 
ceremonies.     The  priests,  generally  speaking,  were  of  little 
importance,  and  served  for  a  brief  period  only.     Both  men 
and  women  officiated  at  the   altars,  and  the   temples   them- 
selves contrast  with  the  Egyptian  temple,  particularly  in  the 
fact  that  a  single,  small,  well-illumined  cella  in  the  center 
replaces    the    dark,    mysterious    halls    of    the    superstitious 
Egyptians. 

59.  Political  and  Historical. — The  Greeks,  owing  to 
their   geographical   surroundings,  were   naturally   colonists, 
and  migrated  to  the  coast  of  Asia  and  across  the  Mediter- 
ranean.     This    emigration    was   established    by    the    Greek 
government  as  early  as  700  B.  C.,  both  to  reduce  the  crowded 
population  and  to  encourage  trade.    The  colonies  were  there- 
fore frequently  occupied  by  a  people  much  more  enterprising 
and  energetic  than  those  of  the  mother  country.     For  this 
reason  we  find  some  of  the  most  important  buildings  in  Asia 
Minor  and  on  the  islands.     It  is  not  remarkable,  either,  to 
find  in  these   Asiatic   edifices   an   influence   of    Orientalism. 
The  people  themselves,  as  a  whole,  were  fond  of  national 
games  and  religious  festivals,   and  thus  became  united  in 
reverence  for  their  government  and  their  gods.     They  loved 
music,  drama,  and  games  in  physical  culture,  and  liberally 
patronized  the  fine  arts.    They  lived  an  outdoor,  open-air  life, 
and  public  ceremonies  and  courts  of  justice  were  frequently 
conducted  in  the  public  squares. 

60.  The  early  Greeks,  called  Pelasgi,  were  a  warlike  race 
and  contributed  much  to  their  descendants   in  the  islands. 
They  were  conquered  by  a  neighboring  tribe,  who  in  turn  were 
defeated    by    some   tribes   from   the  north,   called    Dorians. 
The  Dorians   afterwards  established  themselves   at   Sparta. 
Later,  the  Persians  overcame  the  Greeks  in  Asia  Minor  and 
made  them  subjects  of  the  Persian  Empire.     These  Greek 
subjects   revolted,    however,   and   war  between   Persia  and 


42  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

Greece  resulted  in  victory  for  the  Greeks  at  the  battle  of 
Marathon,  in  490  B.  C.  Ten  years  later  a  second  Persian 
invasion  under  Xerxes  ended  in  the  naval  victory  of  Salamis, 
in  480  B.  C.  The  great  national  exultation  caused  by  these 
two  victories  over  the  Persians  is  largely  responsible  for  the 
fact  that  most  of  the  important  temples  were  built  within  the 
50  years  following  this  period.  Under  Pericles,  from  444  to 
429  B.  C.,  Athens  reached  the  zenith  of  her  prosperity  in 
artistic  development.  The  rapid  growth  of  Athens  excited  the 
jealousy  of  the  neighboring  city  of  Sparta,  and  brought  on 
another  war,  known  as  the  Peloponnesian  war,  which  lasted 
from  431  to  404  B.  C.  At  the  close  of  this  war,  Greece  was 

weakened  internally  and  the 
ascendency  of  Athens  was 
destroyed  forever.  Greece 
became  a  Roman  Province 
in  146  B.  C. 

61.  The  few  architec- 
tural monuments  now  stand- 
ing, from  which  we  can 
judge  of  the  art  and  skill  of 
the  early  Pelasgi,  consist  of 
massive  walls,  built  of  huge 
pieces  of  roughly  hewn 

FIG.  37 

stone  laid  up  together  with- 
out mortar,  as  shown  in  Fig.  37.  The  immense  proportions 
of  these  stone  blocks  suggest  that  the  method  of  their 
quarrying  was  derived  from  Egypt,  while  the  shape  of  the 
openings  in  the  walls,  produced  by  corbeling  each  succes- 
sive block  slightly  beyond  the  next  one  below,  was  prob- 
ably derived  from  some  of  the  structures  observed  in  Asia. 
The  Greek  historians  looked  on  such  achievements  in  con- 
struction as  something  beyond  the  power  of  ordinary  men, 
and  declared  these  walls  to  have  been  built  by  the  Cyclops, 
a  mythical  tribe  of  giants;  and  to  work  of  this  character  the 
Greek  legends  ascribe  the  name  of  Cyclopean  masonry.  This 
system  is  somewhat  more  clearly  shown  in  their  tombs,  the 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


43 


most  important  of  which  is  the  Treasury  of  Atreus,  Fig.  38, 
built  at  Mycenae.  The  entrance  a  opens  into  a  circular 
chamber,  the  side  walls  of  which  are  corbeled  over  to  make 
a  pointed  dome.  These  tombs  were  called  treasuries,  because 
it  was  customary  to  deposit  in  the  vaulted  chambers  valuable 
chalices  of  gold,  silver,  or  bronze,  together  with  coins,  pot- 
tery, etc.  These  tombs,  or  treasuries,  are  of  architectural 
importance,  however,  only  so  far  as  they  illustrate  the  system 
of  construction,  and 
thereby  preserve  the 
thread  from  a  simpler 
system  that  preceded 
to  an  advanced  sys- 
tem that  followed. 
It  should  be  noted 
that  though  the  walls 
of  this  structure 
form  a  pointed  dome, 
the  beds  of  the  stones 
of  which  it  is  built 
are  horizontal  and  do 
not  radiate  from  the 
centers  from  which 
the  arcs  of  the  sides 
are  struck.  It  will 
be  seen  later  that 
this  is  not  a  true 
vault  in  the  sense 
that  vaults  were  con- 
structed by  later 
people  and  therefore 
does  not  contradict  the  fact  that  Greek  architecture  is  a 
purely  trabeated  style  and  never  took  advantage  of  the 
mechanical  principle  of  the  arch. 

62.  The  period  which  followed  the  Persian  wars,  known 
as  the  Hellenic  Period,  included  all  the  principal  temples  and 
other  monuments  erected  between  the  years  480  B.  C.  and 


FIG.  38 


44  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

146  A.  D.,  when  Greece  became  a  Roman  province.  The  first 
fifty  years  of  this  period,  known  as  the  age  of  Pericles,  was 
one  of  the  most  intellectual  eras  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
The  architecture  of  the  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  and  Persians 
exercised  very  little  influence  on  the  art  of  the  Western 
nations,  while  the  influence  of  the  Periclean  period  of  Grecian 
art,  pervades  all  subsequent  architectural  history. 


CHARACTERISTICS 

63.  Greek  cities  were  usually  built  on  or  near  a  fortified 
hill  called  the  acropolis,  or  "upper  city,"  and  on  this  acropolis 
are  usually  found  the  principal  temples  and  treasuries.     The 
arrangement  of  the  buildings  on  the  acropolis  at  Athens  is 
shown  in  Fig.  39.     Other  Greek  cities  of  importance  were 
Olympia,  Sparta,  and  Delhi,  in  Greece  proper;  Paestum,  in 
Southern   Italy;    Agrigentum,   in   Sicily;    and  Ephesus  and 
Halicarnassus  in  Asia  Minor. 

64.  Greek    architecture    reached    its    full    development 
in  temples,   and  though  we  can  still  study  the  remains  of 
theaters,   circuses,   market  places,   and  tombs,  it  is  in  the 
Grecian  temple  that  we  find  the   perfection  of    detail  that 
has  made  Greek  art  immortal. 

The  earliest  temples  consisted  of  a  naos,  or  single  cell,  only, 
and  were  astylar,  that  is,  without  columns,  except  sometimes 
on  the  front,  where  a  pronaos,  or  porch,  was  produced  by  con- 
tinuing the  side  walls  beyond  the  front  wall  of  the  naos,  and 
placing  the  columns  in  antis;  that  is,  between  the  two  pil- 
asters forming  the  ends  of  the  projecting  walls,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  40  (a).  This  figure  illustrates  the  plan  of  the  temple, 
showing  the  naos,  or  sanctuary,  at  a;  the  pronaos,  or 
advanced  porch,  at  b;  and  the  two  columns,  in  antis,  between 
them  at  d. 

65.  The   arrangement  of   all  later  Greek  temples  was 
extremely   simple.     A   platform  a,   Fig.   40   (/),   surrounds 
the  building  on  which  the  columns  stand.     The  pronaos,  or 
porch,  b,  is  immediately  in  front  of  the  entrance  to  the  naos, 


46 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


(d) 


(f) 


(o) 


FIG.  40 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  47 

or  cell,  d.  At  c  is  the  opisthodomus,  or  treasury  chamber, 
where  the  gold  and  silver  chalices,  urns,  torches,  and  braziers, 
employed  in  various  ceremonies,  were  stored  when  not  in 
use,  and  at  c  is  the  rear  porch,  or  posticum. 

66.  On  the  exterior  of  the  temples,  variety  was  attained 
by  arranging  the  columns  in  one  of  seven  distinct  systems: 

1.  Distyle  (two  columns)  in  antis,  as  in  Fig.  40  (a). 

2.  Distyle  in  antis  at  both  ends,  as  in  Fig.  40  (b] . 

3.  Prostyle   tetrastyle,   that   is,   four  columns  with  front 
portico,  as  in  Fig.  40  (c} . 

4.  Amphi  prostyle  tetrastyle,  four  columns  and  porticos, 
at  each  end,  as  in  Fig.  40  (d}. 

5.  Peripteral  hexastyle,  surrounded  by  columns,  six  on 
each  end,  as  in  Fig.  40  (e). 

6.  Peripteral  octastyle,  surrounded  by  columns,  eight  on 
each  end,  as  in  Fig.  40  (/). 

7.  Dipteral   hexastyle,  or   octastyle,  surrounded  by   two 
rows   of    columns,   with    six    or    eight    at    each    end,    as    in 
Fig.  40  Or). 

Circular  and  octagonal  temples  also  existed,  but  these  are 
rare  and  can  be  considered  as  exceptions  to  the  general  rule. 

67.  All  of  these  temples  were  erected  in  one  of  three 
systems    of    architectural    design,    each    consisting    of     a 
substructure,  a  column,  a  beam  or  lintel,  and  a  superstructure. 
These  four  details  are  varied  somewhat  in  different  struc- 
tures, but  were  arranged  in  three  systems,  the  details  of  which 
remained  almost  constant  in  all  structures  where  each  was 
followed.     These  systems  are  called  ai-cliitectural  orders, 
and  are  classified  as  the  Doric  order,  the  Ionic  order,  and  the 
Corinthian  order,  being  named  after  the  section  of  the  coun- 
try where  each  system  is  supposed  to  have  originated.     In 
Fig.  41  are  shown  these  three  orders  according  to  the  Greek 
standard,  the   Doric  being  shown  at   (a),   the  Ionic  at   (£), 
and  the  Corinthian  at  (c}.     The  relative  proportions  of  the 
height  of  the  column  to  its  diameter,  can  be  judged  in  each 
order,  as  the  columns  in  Fig.  41  are  all  of  the  same  thick- 
ness at  the  base. 


(a) 


550 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


49 


EXAMPLES 

68.  The  Parthenon. — The  Parthenon  was  a  temple  dedi- 
cated to  Athena  Parthenos  (Athena  the  Virgin).  Ictinus  and 
Ualliciates  were  the  architects,  and  Phidias  the  superintending 
sculptor.  The  plan  of  this  temple,  Fig.  40  (/),  shows  it  to 
be  peripteral  octastyle,  with  seventeen  columns  on  the  sides. 
It  stood  on  a  stylobate  of  three  steps,  the  top  step  being 
102  ft.  X  228  ft. — a  proportion  of  about  4  to  9.  Each  step  is 


FIG.  42 

1  ft.  8  in.  high  X  2  ft.  4  in.  wide,  and  intermediate  steps  of 
half  these  dimensions  are  provided  at  the  entrances. 

The  Doric  was  the  order  especially  loved  by  the  Greeks, 
and  as  used  in  the  Parthenon  is  as  complete  and  as  perfect 
an  architectural  feature  as  has  ever  been  known.  Fig.  42 
shows  the  condition  of  the  structure  as  it  stands  today  in 
ruins  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  while  in  Fig.  43  is  shown 
a  view  of  the  Parthenon,  made  from  a  restored  model  of  the 
temple,  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York.  This  model 
shows  the  building  as  completed  by  the  architects  in  the  year 
438  B.  C. 

I  L  T  303— S 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


69.  Owing  to  the  ruined  condition  of  this  celebrated 
structure,  there  have  been  several  theories  advanced  as  to 
how  the  interior  was  lighted.  The  architectural  historian 
Ferguson  maintains  that  this  was  effected  by  means  of  a 
clearstory,  as  shown  in  the  sectional  view,  Fig.  44  (a),  while 


Botticher,  another  historian,  advanced  the  theory  of  a  central 
opening  along  the  ridge,  as  shown  at  (/>).  Both  agree  upon 
an  upper  tier  of  interior  columns,  although  this  construction 
was  never  used  on  the  exterior  of  any  Greek  temple. 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


53 


Within  the  temple  was  a  marvelous  statue  of  Athena 
sculptured  by  Phidias.  This  statue  was  40  feet  in  height 
and  was  composed  of  gold  and  ivory.  It  represented 
Athena  in  full  armor,  with  helmet,  spear,  and  shield,  in  her 
character  as  defender  of  the  nation.  The  face,  hands,  and 
feet  were  of  ivory,  but  the  drapery  and  the  armor  were  of 
solid  gold  with  precious  stones  inserted. 

7O.  The  Kreclitheum. — The  principal  Greek  structure 
in  the  Ionic  order  was  the  Erechtheum,  and  consisted  of  a 


FIG.  4f> 


triple  temple,  as  shown  in  the  plan,  Fig.  40  (//),  which 
exhibits  the  peculiarities  of  its  outline.  It  combined  three 
temples,  that  of  the  Greek  god  Erechtheus  at  a,  and  those  of 


54 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


the  goddesses  Pandrosus  and  Athena  Polias  at  b  and c,  respect- 
ively. The  design  was  intentionally  unsymmetrical,  not 
only  in  plan  but  in  elevation,  as  shown  in  Fig.  45 — as  the 
three  temples  were  on  different  levels — and  was  varied  as 
widely  in  detail  as  circumstances  would  permit.  The  porch 
of  the  temple  of  Athena  Polias  on  the  north  side  was  on  the 
lowest  level  and  contained  six  columns,  four  in  front,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  46.  The  temple  of  Erechtheus  on  the  east 
side  contained  six  columns  in  its  porch,  but  they  were  all 
arranged  across  the  front,  with  no  extra  ones  at  the  sides. 


o     o o o     ooooooooo 


if 


FIG.  47 

In  the  temple  of  Pandrosus,  the  roof  is  not  supported  on 
columns  at  all,  but  on  the  heads  of  sculptured  female  figures 
called  caryatids.  A  front  elevation  of  this  last  temple  is  shown 
in  Fig.  47,  and  a  detail  of  one  of  the  caryatids,  in  Fig.  48. 
As  will  be  observed,  the  Grecian  architect  exerted  every 
effort  in  his  power  to  prevent  this  building  from  presenting 
the  appearance  of  a  single  temple  dedicated  to  only  one  god. 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


71.  The  caryatid  figures,  Fig.  48,  in  the  porch  of  the 
Erectheum  are  unique,  as  there  is  only  this  one  example  of 
their  use  for  such  a  purpose.  The  entablature  they  support 
is  Ionic  in  detail,  but  the  height  of  the  figures  is  much  less 
than  the  corresponding  column  would  be. 
The  figures  are  heavily  proportioned  to 
fulfil  the  demand  for  an  appearance  of 
strength,  and  the  draperies  are  exquisitely 
modeled,  as  are  all  details  of  Greek 
sculpture. 


Q        O        O        O        O        O        O 


FIG. 


FIG.  49 


72.  The  doorway  of  the  temple  of  Athena  Polias,  of 
which  the  cornice  only  is  visible  in  Fig.  46,  is  shown  more  in 
detail  in  Fig.  49.  It  is  of  interest  because  there  are  so  few 
examples  existing  where  the  details  of  the  openings  can  be 
studied.  This  door  is  a  trifle  more  than  twice  as  high  as  it 


56 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


is  wide,  and  the  sides  taper  slightly  so  that  the  top  is  only 
about  fifteen-sixteenths  the  width  of  the  bottom.  This 
diminution  was  undoubtedly  given  in  order  to  obviate  any 
appearance  of  weakness.  The  conventional  honeysuckle 
ornament  adorns  the  cyma  and  an  egg-and-dart  ornament  is 
carved  on  the  ovolo  under  the  soffit  of  the  corona  (see 
Art.  91).  The  projection  of  the  cornice  is  about  equal  to 
its  height,  and  the  soffit  at  each  end  is  supported  by  a  scroll 
form  of  bracket,  called  a  console. 

The   windows,  as   shown    in    Fig.  45,  possess    the  same 

relative  proportion  as   the 

doorway. 

73.  Temple  of  Nike 
Apteros. — Another  Ionic 
structure  that  was  demolished 
and  its  stones  built  into  the 
Acropolis  walls,  is  the  little 
temple  of  Nike  Apteros,  or 
Wingless  Victory,  Fig.  50. 
This  little  edifice  was  rescued 
by  architectural  students,  how- 
ever, and  rebuilt  in  its  original 
position  on  the  right  of  the 
Propylaea  stairs,  as  shown  at  d, 
Fig.  51.  Fig.  50  shows  the 
front  elevation  of  the  temple 
of  Wingless  Victory  as  it  existed  after  the  restoration.  The 
frieze  is  observed  to  be  carved  with  various  human  figures, 
a  condition  that  is  unusual  in  the  Grecian-Ionic  buildings. 

74.  The  Propyleea. — Another  important  Doric  structure 
is  the  Propylaea,  or  principal  gateway  to  the  Acropolis,  which 
is  shown  in  Fig.  51;  The  Acropolis  of  Athens  was  a  forti- 
fied hill  surrounded  by  a  wall  in  which  were  nine  gateways. 
The  Propylaea  a  consisted  of  a  Doric  hexaprostyle  portico, 
the  central  columns  of  which  were  separated  more  than  the 
others  in  order  to  form  a  wider  passageway  for  the  religious 
processions.  Beyond  this  is  a  vestibule  divided  into  three 


FIG.  50 


57 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


FIG.  52 


parts  by  two  rows  of 
Ionic  columns,  each  row 
of  which  forms  the  front 
of  a  small  tristyle,  or 
three -columned  temple 
in  antis,  to  the  right  and 
left  of  the  vestibule,  as 
shown  at  b  and  c. 

Beyond  the  Propylaea, 
the  summit  of  the  hill 
was  leveled  off  to  form  a 
plateau,  and  prominent 
on  the  south  side  at  e 
stood  the  celebrated 
Parthenon.  A  colossal 
statue  of  Athena  /, 
stood  directly  in  front 
of  the  center  of  the 
Propylsea,  and  to  the  left 
of  this  monument  and 
northeast  of  the  Par- 
thenon stood  the  Erech- 
theum,  the  triple  Ionic 
temple,  as  shown  at  g. 
Smaller  temples  to 
minor  deities  and 
statues  of  heroes  and 
gods  were  numerous 
along  the  walls  of  the 
Acropolis,  and  the  entire 
plateau  was  laid  out  to 
make  a  most  impressive 
architectural  composi- 
tion, worthy  of  the 
gods  to  whom  incense 
was  burned  on  the 
numerous  altars.  See 
also  Fig.  39. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  59 

75.  Chora#Ic  Monument  of  Liysicrates. — There  is 
only  one  perfect  example  of  the  Corinthian  order  found  in 
Greece  at  the  present  day,  and  this  is  the  little  structure  known 
as  the  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  which  is  shown  in 
Fig.  52.  This  structure  stands  on  a  square  pedestal  built  to 
receive  it,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  bronze  tripod;  but  these 
details  form  no  part  of  the  order  itself.  The  stylobate  in 
this  example  is  circular  in  plan,  and  the  columns  are  arranged 
around  and  against  a  cylinder;  but  these  and  the  superstruc- 
ture will  be  considered  as  though  they  were  entirely  detached, 
as  in  the  previous  examples.  The  shaft  of  the  column  is 
grooved  by  twenty-four  flutes  separated  by  fillets,  as  in  the 
Ionic  order,  but  is  longer  in  proportion  to  its  diameter.  It 
also  has  a  molded  base  similar  to  the  Ionic,  but  this  is 
spread  more  on  account  of  the  smaller  sectional  area  of  the 
column.  The  capital  is  taller  than  that  of  either  of  the  other 
orders,  and  is  carved  in  representation  of  foliage  arranged 
around  a  bell-shaped  core.  The  entablature  is  similar  to 
that  division  of  the  Ionic  order,  but  is  much  richer  in  mold- 
ings and  carvings. 

The  foliage  of  the  capital  and  the  ornament  supporting 
the  bronze  tripod  above  is  based  upon  the  acanthus — a  plant 
growing  freely  in  Mediterranean  countries,  that  strongly 
resembles  our  modern  thistle.  The  acanthus  is  another  of 
those  vegetable  types  that  like  the  lotus  became  almost 
emblematic  in  itself  of  a  particular  architectural  style.  The 
Greeks  used  it  in  their  decorative  schemes  and  carried  it 
around  the  bell  of  the  capital  of  their  Corinthian  columns, 
thus  introducing  a  new  architectural  detail — the  foliated 
capital.  The  Egyptians  carved  and  painted  their  capitals  in 
conventional  representation  of  the  lotus  blossom  and  papyrus 
plant,  as  has  been  shown  in  Fig.  14,  but  the  Greeks  went 
a  step  further,  and,  adopting  the  bell  shape  for  the  core 
of  the  capital,  they  embellished  it  with  delicately  arranged 
foliage  from  the  acanthus  plant.  The  Corinthian  order, 
however,  was  never  used  by  the  Greeks  in  their  temple 
architecture.  It  was  used  in  small  buildings  only,  and  of 
these  but  few  examples  exist. 


60 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


50 


76.  Tower  of  the  Winds. — Another  structure  at  Athens, 
the  Tower  of  the  Winds,  Fig.  53,  possesses  a  foliated  capital, 
on  its  columns,  but  the  columns  have  no  base.  The  build- 
ing was  octagonal  in  plan,  and  on  each  side  was  carved  a 
figure  emblematic  of  the  wind  from  that  particular  direction. 

The  building  contained  a  clock  operated  by  water-power 
and  it  was  in  reality  more  a  building  of  public  utility  than 


FIG.  53 

an  architectural  monument,  to  be  classed  with  the  great 
temples  of  Greece.  On  two  sides  it  presented  projecting 
porches,  whose  roofs  were  closed  on  the  outer  ends  with 
pediments  supported  on  baseless  columns.  The  whole 
trend  of  these  Corinthian  designs  is  directly  against  the 
architectural  traditions  of  Greece.  Neither  of  them  is  a 
temple,  and  neither  of  them  presents  a  single  architectural 
detail  that  can  be  found  in  the  temple  orders. 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


61 


77.  Tombs. — The  tombs  in  Greece  proper  are  of  no 
great  account  architecturally,  but  in  the  Greek  colonies  there 
are  several  of  great  importance.  The  colossal  Mausoleum 
at  Halicarnassus,  Fig.  54,  erected  to  Mausolus,  King  of 
Caria,  was  an  immense  Ionic  structure,  140  feet  high  and 


FIG.  54 

115  feet  square  at  the  base.  The  richness  of  its  sculpture 
and  the  beauty  of  its  proportions  made  it  an  object  of  great 
admiration  among  the  Greeks,  by  whom  it  was  classed  as 
one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. 

78.  Theaters. — Greek  theaters  were  interesting  struc- 
tures, but  were  entirely  different  from  the  same  class  of 
building  at  the  present  day.  They  were  cut  out  of  the  rock 
on  a  side  hill,  and  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  semicircle,  with 
seats  in  rows  parallel  with  the  circumference,  as  shown  in 


62 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


Fig.  55.  The  stage  was  built  across  the  center,  back  of 
which  the  scene  was  set,  and  the  whole  enclosure  was  covered 
with  an  awning,  called  the  velarium,  arranged  to  protect  the 
spectators  from  the  sun.  The  velarium  was  stretched  from 


FIG.  55 

the  top  of  a  row  of  columns,  which  were  the  only  architec- 
tural feature  visible  from  the  outside  of  the  building. 

79.  To  the  Greeks  we  owe  the  greater  part  of  the  beau- 
tiful and  delicate  details  of  columnar  architecture.  To  them 
we  are  indebted  for  the  most  refined  methods  of  obviating 
the  defects  of  optical  illusion.  The  apparent  depression  in 
the  cornice  across  the  front  of  the  temples,  caused  by  the 
mass  of  material  and  apparent  weight  in  the  center  of 
the  pediment,  was  obviated  by  curving  the  cornice  so  that  the 
center  was  highest.  The  steps  were  curved  in  the  same 
upward  way.  The  architrave  and  frieze  of  the  Parthenon 
sloped  about  1  part  in  80  toward  the  center;  and  so  it  was  in 
all  the  minute  details  of  construction.  The  Greeks  not  only 
avoided  structural  weakness  in  design,  but  invented  methods 
to  overcome  even  the  slightest  appearance  of  such  weakness. 


£50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  63 


ANALYTICAL    STUDY 


PLANS 

80.  Greek  temples  were  almost  invariably  rectangular  in 
plan  and  symmetrical  in  design.     The  exceptions  being  the 
Erechtheum,  Fig.  45,  and  the  Propylaea,  Fig.  51,  which  were 
irregular;    the  Choragic  Monument  of   Lysicrates,   Fig.  52, 
which    was    round;    the    Tower    of    the    Winds,   which    was 
octagonal,  and  a  few  others.     Contrasted  with  the  Egyptian 
temples,  the  columns  of  the  Greek  temples  are  found  to  be 
entirely  on  the  exterior  and  uniform  in  style  and  design  in 
each  temple. 

WALLS 

81.  The  walls  were  built  of  solid  stone  cut  with  mathe- 
matical exactness.     No  mortar  was  used,  the  joints  being  so 
placed  as  to  remain  tight  through  the  force  of  gravitation. 
The  finish  was  obtained  by  rubbing  the  surface  of  the  finished 
wall  with  fine  sand.  

ROOFS 

82.  The  roofs  of  the  Greek  temples  were  usually  of  tile 
laid   on   timber  beams   and   extending  only   over  a  portion 
of   the   building,   so  as  to   form   a  central  light  well,   as  in 
Fig.  44  (/;),  or  a  clearstory,  as  in  Fig.  44   (a).      However, 
since  all  of  these  timber  beams  have  rotted  away  during  the 
intervening  centuries,  much  controversy  exists  on  this  point 
owing  to  lack  of  satisfactory  evidence. 


COLUMNS 

83.  The  temples  being  only  one  story  high,  the  column 
and  its  entablature  constituted  the  entire  height  of  the 
building.  These  temples  were  in  one  of  the  three  orders, 
except  in  the  Propylaea,  where  the  Ionic  order  was  introduced 
in  an  otherwise  Doric  composition.  In  the  Erechtheum,  the 


64  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

caryatids  were  used  on  the  porch,  but  as  this  was  an  excep- 
tional structure,  the  caryatids  can  be  considered  as  an  element 
of  this  exception. 

84.  The  height  of  the  Grecian  Doric  column  is  from 
four  to   six  times  its  diameter,  and  it  stands,  without  any 
intermediate    base,   immediately  on  the   stylobate,   or  sub- 
structure, a,  shown  in  Fig.  41  («).     The  column  is  divided 
into  two  parts,  the  shaft  and  the  capital,  the  shaft  being  the 
straight  portion  shown  at  b,  while  the  capital  is  the  cushion- 
shaped  block  c  interposed  between  the  shaft  and  the  entabla- 
ture, or  superstructure,  to  receive  the  superimposed  weight 
and  concentrate  it  at  the  top  of  the  column.     The  diameter 
of  the  shaft  is  less  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  the  diminu- 
tion being  effected,  not  in  a  straight  line  from  the  bottom  to 
the  top,  but  in  a  curved  line  that  renders  the  face  of  the 
column  slightly  convex  or  barrel-shaped.    This  curved  profile 
is  called  the  entasis  of  the  column,  and  its  purpose  is  to 
overcome  an  optical  illusion,   which  causes  long,   straight 
lines  to  appear  hollow  or  concave.     This  curvature  of  out- 
line   was    maintained    not    only    in    the    columns,    but    also 
throughout  entire  buildings,  and  as  a  consequence,  in  Greek 
compositions,    there    is    not   a    straight    line    in    the    entire 
structure.     The  shaft  is  grooved  by  from  sixteen  to  twenty 
flutes  that  meet  on  the  surface  and  form  ridges  or  arrises, 
as  shown  at  x. 

85.  The  entablature  is  subdivided  into  three  parts:   the 
architrave,  or  lintel,  d;  the  frieze  e;  and  the  cornice,  or  crown- 
ing member,  /.     The  frieze  is  broken  by  the  triglyphs  g  and 
the  metopes  h.     The  triglyphs  derive  their  name  from  the 
grooves,  or  channels,  cut  in  their  faces,  two  being  cut  in  the 
middle  and  half  a  channel  being  cut  on  each  side,  making  in 
all  three  channels,  or  "glyphs,"  which  is  the  meaning  of  the 
term  triglyph. 

The  cornice  consists  of  the  finish  along  the  edge  of  the 
slabs,  or  tiles,  that  form  the  roof  covering.  It  formed  a 
gutter  that  discharged  the  rainwater  through  numerous 
curved  gargoyles,  or  spouts,  as  shown  at  /,  Fig.  41  (a). 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  65 

86.  To  the  Greeks  we  are  indebted  for  the  invention  of 
a  new  architectural  form,  the  pediment.     This  exists  at  the 
ends  of  the  temples,  and  is  formed  by  the  triangle  under  the 
roof    slopes,    Fig.   46.     The   upper   molding  of   the   cornice 
was  carried  across  the  ends  of  the  building  from  each  side 
on  a  line  with  the  roof  slope,  while  the  lower  member  was 
carried  straight  across  the  ends  of  the  building.     The  triangle 
then  forms  a  pediment,  while   the   surface  enclosed  by  the 
moldings  is  called  the   tympanum.      This   surface   was   fre- 
quently decorated  with  sculptured  figures  as  in  the  Parthenon, 
Fig.   42,   but  equally   often   was    left   perfectly   plain.     The 
soffit,  or  under  side,  of  the  lower  member   of  the  cornice 
was  ornamented  with  a  number  of  projecting   slabs,  called 
mutules,   representative   of    the   ends    of    the   rafters   in   the 
sloping   roof.      These   slabs   were   placed   regularly   around 
all   four   sides    of    the    building,   being   centered   over  each 
triglyph  and  metope. 

87.  In  the  Ionic  order,  shown  in  Fig.  41  (b] ,  the  column 
is  more  slender  than  in  the  Doric,  being  about  eight  or  nine 
times  its  diameter  in  height.     Instead  of  being  divided  into 
two  parts,  the  Ionic  column  consists  of  three  subdivisions, 
the  base  a,  which  forms  an  individual  substructure  under  each 
column,  the   shaft,  or  column  proper,   b,  and  the  capital  c, 
while  the   stylobate,  on  which  the  column   stands,   is  prac- 
tically the  same  as  the  Doric  order.     The  shaft  is  grooved 
by  twenty-four  flutes  that  are  separated  by  narrow  fillets  e. 

The  capital  c  is  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the 
Ionic  order.  Its  volutes,  or  spirals,  suggest  that  its  design 
may  have  been  influenced  by  Assyrian  ideas  [see  Fig.  33  (r)]. 
The  architrave  /,  unlike  that  detail  in  the  Doric  order,  is 
composed  of  three  bands,  each  of  which  projects  slightly 
beyond  the  one  below.  The  frieze  g  in  this  order  is  a  plain 
band  unbroken  by  triglyphs  or  other  details.  The  cornice  // 
is  somewhat  similar  to  the  Doric  in  its  proportions,  but  differs 
materially  in  its  details,  and  the  tympanum  under  the 
pediment  is  not  ornamented  with  sculpture  in  any  of  the 
Ionic  temples,  the  remains  of  which  are  now  in  existence. 

I  L  T  303—6 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


50 


88.     In  the  Corinthian  order,   Fig.  41  (c),  the  shaft  of 
the  column  is  grooved  by  twenty-four  flutes  separated  by 

I  fillets,  as  in  the  Ionic 

order,  but  the  column 
is  longer  in  propor- 
tion to  its  diameter. 
It  also  has  a  molded 
base  that  is  similar  to 
the  Ionic,  but  this 
is  spread  more  on 
account  of  the  smaller 
sectional  area  of  the 
column.  The  capital 
is  taller  than  that  of 
either  of  the  other 
orders,  and  is  carved 
in  representation  of 
foliage  arranged 
around  a  bell-shaped 
core,  Fig.  56.  The  entablature  is  similar  to  that  division  of  the 
Ionic  order,  but  is  much  richer  in  moldings  and  carved  figures. 


wmnnnnii 


FIG.  56 


OPENINGS 

89.  All  openings  in  Greek  structures  were  square-headed. 
The  lintel  alone  was  used  to  span  distances  between  supports, 
as  the  style  of  architecture  is  a  trabeated  one.  The  openings 
were  necessarily  narrow,  owing  to  the  difficulty  in  obtaining 
stone  lintels  of  any  considerable  length.  The  sides  of  the 
openings  occasionally  tapered  toward  the  top,  and  they  were 
usually  relieved  by  an  architrave  at  the  sides  and  a  cornice, 
or  entablature,  supported  on  consoles,  across  the  top. 


MOLDINGS 

90.  Moldings  are  used  in  architectural  design  to  subdivide 
wall  surfaces  into  smaller  areas  that  may  be  treated  sepa- 
rately. The  Greeks  were  the  first  to  classify  their  moldings 
systematically,  and  to  use  the  combination  of  a  few  simple 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


67 


JOOOOOO 


forms  to  secure  the  most  artistic  effect.  The  original  out- 
lines of  their  moldings  were  probably  drawn  freehand,  but  in 
all  cases  they  approximate  closely  to  the  curves  of  the  conic 
sections.  When  they  were  carved  or  enriched,  the  form  of 
decoration  usually  corresponded  in  outline  to  the  curve  of 
the  molding  itself.  Thus,  we 

find  the  ovolo,  Fig.  57   (g),   -  ^     ^ 

enriched  with  the  "egg-and- 
dart"  ornament,  the  ovolo 
itself  having  derived  its  name 
from  its  egg  shape. 

91.  Eight  distinct  mold- 
ings are  found  in  Greek  archi- 
tecture, each  of  which  is  used 
for  a  particular  purpose  or  in 
a  distinct  position.  All  of 
these  moldings  are  used  in 
the  Ionic  order,  but  only  two 
of  them  were  generally  used 
with  the  Doric:  the  fillet  (a) 
and  the  echinus  (/). 

1.  The  fillet,  Fig.  57  (a), 
is  a  narrow  band  used  to 
separate  the  members  when 
several  moldings  are  used  in 
succession. 

2.  The  bead  (b]  is  similar 
to  the  fillet  in  purpose,  but  is 
round  in   section    and   fre- 
quently carved  into  a  spindle- 
ana-disk  ornament  as  shown. 

3.  The  cavetto  is  a  small 
hollow,  being  almost  univer- 
sally used  under  a  fillet  and  at  the  top  of  a  plain,  vertical 
surface,   as   shown   at  (c] .     When   a  hollow   similar   to   the 
cavetto  is  used  above  a  fillet,  as  at  the  bottom  of  a  shaft  of 
a  column,  it  is  called  an  apophygc,  or  easement. 


68  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

4.  The    scotia    (d)    is    a   deep,    hollow    molding   used 
almost  exclusively  in  the  bases  of  columns  or  other  details 
entirely  below  the  eye. 

The  two  last  moldings  constitute  all  of  the  hollow,  or 
concave,  moldings,  and  in  Greek  architecture  they  were 
never  carved  or  decorated  in  relief. 

5.  The  cyma  recta  (<?)  is  a  molding  of  double  curva- 
ture— concave  above  and  convex  beneath.     Its  form  gives  it 
its  name,  cyma  meaning  "a  wave."     The  cyma  recta  was 
nearly  always  used  at  the  top  of  a  composition,  with  a  fillet 
above  and  below  it.     It  was  usually  decorated  with  the  con- 
ventional  honeysuckle    ornament,    as   here    shown,    but   in 
many  instances  was  left  plain. 

6.  The  cyma  reversa    (/)    is  another  molding  of  com- 
pound curvature,  but  is  convex  above  and  concave  beneath. 
It  was  always  used  under  a  fillet,  and  when  ornamented,  the 
elements  of  the  design  were  based  on  the  profile,  or  curve, 
of  the  molding. 

7.  The    ovolo,    or    echinus,    is    an    egg-shaped    mold- 
ing  (*r)   entirely  convex,  and  its  characteristic  ornamenta- 
tion was  a  carved  egg-and-dart  form,  as  shown.     It  is  more 
frequently  called  an  egg-and-dart  molding  than  an  ovolo. 

8.  The  torus  (//)  is  a  large,  convex  molding  similar  to 
the  bead,  but  is  much  larger  and  is  used  only  between  two 
fillets  in  the  bases  of  columns.     It  was  sometimes  decorated 
with  strapwork  ornamentation,  called  a  guilloche,  as  shown. 

In  nearly  every  instance,  the  curves  of  these  moldings 
were  based  on  the  parabola,  hyperbola,  or  ellipse,  and  rarely 
do  we  find  the  arc  of  a  circle  used.  This  is  an  important 
characteristic  of  Greek  moldings. 


ORNAMENT 

92.  Types. — The  types  on  which  Greek  ornament  is 
based  are  few,  and  the  renderings  are  so  conventional  that  it 
is  difficult  to  recognize  in  many  cases  from  what  particular 
type  the  ornament  was  derived.  The  fret  is  used  frequently, 
and  is  undoubtedly  derived  from  an  Egyptian  source,  as  is 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


69 


also  much  of  the  foliated  ornament  indicating  a  modified 
rendering  of  the  conventional  lotus. 

93.  The  acanthus  leaf  is  the  first  new  type  that  is  met  in 
Greek  ornament,  and  it  appears  on  the  Corinthian  capitals 
and  on  much  of  the  painted  deco- 
ration.    Fig.  08  (a)  shows  a  form 

of  the  acanthus  taken  from  the 
Tower  of  the  Winds  at  Athens. 
This  is  a  purely  conventional 
form,  possessing  a  broad,  bold 
treatment  necessary  for  its  exe- 
cution in  stone,  but  it  follows 
closely  the  principles  of  the 
growing  plant  as  do  all  other 
developments  in  Greek  ornament. 

94.  The  Three  Great  Laws 
of   Nature. — That    the    Greek 
artists    carefully     observed     the 
principle  on  which  certain  plants 
grew,  and  carried   that  principle 
out  conscientiously  in  the  execu- 
tion of  their  designs,  cannot  be 
doubted.     They    were    close 
observers  of  nature,  and  although 
they  did  not  copy  nor  attempt  to 
imitate  or  make  true  portraits  of 
any    natural    forms,    they    never 
violated  a  natural  principle.    The 
three  great  laws  of  nature — radia- 
tion from  the  parent  stem,  the  pro- 
portionate   distribution    of    areas, 
and  the  tangential  curvature  of  the 
lines — are  always  obeyed;  and  it 

is  the  unerring  perfection  with  which  they  are  carried  out 
in  the  most  humble  works,  as  well  as  those  of  the  greatest 
importance,  that  fills  us  with  astonishment  at  the  consci- 
entious scruples  of  the  Groek  artist. 


(6) 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  71 

95.    Various  Forms  of  Greek  Ornament. — The  forms 
shown  in  Fig.  59  (a),  (b),(c],  and  (d)  are  usually  referred  to 


FIG.  60 


as  the  honeysuckle   ornament,   although   there   is   much 
question  as  to  whether  these  forms  were  derived  from  the 


72  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

conventional  rendering  of  the  honeysuckle  bud,  or  from  an 
adoption  of  certain  lotus  forms  in  single  brush  strokes.  The 
natural  honeysuckle  blossom  is  shown  in  Fig.  60,  and  a 
strictly  conventional  rendering  of  it,  in  Fig.  58  (b).  It 
requires  some  imagination  to  believe  that  the  graceful 
strokes  of  the  honeysuckle  ornament  bear  any  relation  to  the 
plant  itself,  and  it  is  far  easier  to  assume  that  these  are  the 
outcome  of  brush-stroke  renderings  of  lotus  forms.  In 
Fig.  58  (c)  are  shown  six  strokes  made  with  a  brush  and 
black  paint.  The  point  of  the  brush  is  first  touched  to  the 
paper,  and  as  pressure  is  increased,  the  bristles  spread  out 
and  then  come  together  again  when  the  pressure  is  released, 
thus  giving  the  stroke  the  forms  shown.  Variations  of  these 
six  strokes  constitute  the  principal  elements  of  all  painted 
Greek  ornament  and  some  carved  ornament.  The  influence 
of  this  stroke  is  particularly  traceable  in  Fig.  59  (a),  (b),  (c), 
and  (</),  and  will  be  found  also  in  subsequent  examples. 

96.  In  order  to  supply  motifs  for  the  graceful  scrolls  that 
appear  so  frequently  in  Greek  designs,  the  artist  did  not 
hesitate  to  draw  inspirations  from  such  homely  growths  as 
pumpkin  and  squash  vines,  the  details  of  which  were 
conventionalized  into  the  forms  shown  in  Fig.  61.  These 
vine  forms  were  sometimes  combined  with  other  forms,  such 
as  the  acanthus  leaf,  as  shown  in  Fig.  61  (a),  with  the 
honeysuckle  ornament,  as  at  (t>)  and  (d),  or  the  human 
figure,  as  at  (c).  Variations  were  practiced  to  suit  the  con- 
ditions of  each  case,  as  in  Fig.  59  (e) ,  where  the  outlines  of 
the  ornament  show  it  to  have  been  carved  on  a  cyma-reversa 
molding.  In  Fig.  64  are  shown  four  examples,  introducing 
individual  ornaments  in  alternation;  that  is,  two  forms 
repeated  alternately  in  contrast  to  repetition,  where  one  form 
is  repeated  continuously,  as  in  Fig.  59  (c)  and  (e). 

The  scroll  shown  in  Fig.  59  (.?•)  is  taken  from  the  top 
of  the  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates  and  presents  the 
characteristic  principles  of  Greek  scroll  ornament.  There  is 
a  main  central  wavy  line  or  stem  here,  from  which  the  scrolls 
branch  off  alternately  from  opposite  sides. 


74 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


50' 


The  forms  in  Fig.  65  are  known  as  stella,  and  were  used 
largely  on  tops  of  tomb  monuments.  The  forms  at  (a),  (£), 
(<:),  and  (d)  were  used  on  corners,  and  the  forms  (e),  (/), 
and  (g)  as  central  ornaments.  Although  these  examples 


fa; 


(c) 


were  all  originally  executed  in  stone,  the  graceful  form 
of  the  brush-stroke  is  evident  in  all  of  them  except  (d). 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Greek  lily,  Fig.  62  (c),  which 
may  have  been  derived  from  the  lotus  form  (a)  and  (b}. 
The  antliemion  ornament,  Fig.  63,  consists  of  the  honey- 
suckle form  enclosed  in  an  elliptical  outline.  This  was 
much  used  to  decorate  the  antefixae  along  the  eaves,  and 
also  for  the  stellae  on  the  tops  of  monuments  and  at  the 
points  of  pediments. 

In  Fig.  66  are  shown  examples  of  Greek  ornament  found 

on  painted  vases.  At  (a)  is 
shown  the  honeysuckle  orna- 
ment alternated  with  a  simple 
form  of  the  Greek  lily;  at  (b), 
the  anthemion  designed  to 
form  a  border,  or  stripe;  at  (c) 
and  (d),  rosette  forms,  which 
may  have  been  borrowed  from 
Egypt,  as  may  also  the  wave 
design  shown  at  (g).  The  fret 
forms  at  (<?)  and  (/)  are  characteristic  of  Greek  geometrical 
ornament.  The  fret  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  forms  of 
ornament  known.  It  was  probably  derived  from  patterns 
formed_by  laying  bricks  in  two  colors.  In  the  best  patterns, 


FIG.  63 


FIG.  65 


76 


GREEK   DECORATION 


161-1  L  T  100,  303    J  50 


GREEK    DEC  ORATION 


w 

FIG.  67 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  77 

the  two  outlines  formed  by  the  two  colors  are  identical  and 
fit  one  within  the  other. 

In  Pig.  67  (a)  is  shown  a  painted  stellae;  at  (b)  and  (/) 
colored  borders,  introducing  the  honeysuckle  ornament;  and 
at  (c)  and  (d] ,  ceiling  ornamentation  from  the  Parthenon. 
At  (e)  is  shown  the  carved  torus  molding  from  the  Ionic 
order,  showing  colors  used  on  that  member  when  buildings 
were  painted. 

97.  The  introduction  of  animals  and  human  figures  in 
ornament  was  very  common  in  late  Greek  ornament,  and 


FIG.  68 

even  some  of  the  foliations  terminated  in  the  human  form,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  68.  These  forms  were  introduced  solely  for 
decorative  effect,  and  should  not  be  confused  with  the  forms 
that  were  carved  on  the  metopes  in  the  Doric  order,  or  on 
the  frieze  in  the  Corinthian  order.  The  latter  forms  were 
used  not  only  for  decorative  effect,  but  also  to  state  a 
historical  fact,  much  in  the  same  manner  as  the  hieroglyphs 
were  used  in  Egypt. 


78 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


WWf 


FIG.  69 


98.  The  moldings  of 
the  Greek  temples  were 
nearly  always  decorated. 
In  the  Ionic  order,  the 
decoration  was  carved  in 
low  relief,  each  detail  being 
most  minutely  executed,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  69;  whereas, 
in  the  Doric  order,  the 
decorations  were  painted 
but  with  equal  care,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  70.  In  each 
case,  the  character  and  out- 
line of  the  ornament  was 
carefully  adjusted  to  the 
molding  that  it  occupied. 
It  will  be  observed,  how- 
ever, that  straight,  flat  sur- 
faces, as  the  abacus  of  the 
columns  and  the  fillets,  are 
decorated  with  geometrical 
ornament  and  frets,  where- 
as the  curved  surfaces  are 
decorated  with  various 
curved  forms  of  honey- 
suckle ornament,  egg-and- 
dart  moldings,  etc.,  the 
curve  of  the  molding  nearly 
always  supplying  the  motif 
for  the  outline  of  the  orna- 
ment in  the  decoration. 

The  guilloche  was  rarely 
used  except  on  the  upper 
torus  of  the  attic  base,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  69.  It  repre- 
sented a  braided  band  of 
straps,  and  was  appropriate 
to  this  position,  as  it 


161-1  L  T  100.  303    §  50 


FK;.  70 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  79 

ostensibly  gave  strength  to  the  base  of  the  column  that  it 
encircled.  Between  the  straps,  buttons  were  sometimes 
carved,  as  shown  in  Fig.  67  (e),  and  a  great  variety  of  form 
was  carried  through  the  interlacings  and  the  bands  themselves. 

99.  Greek  art  carried  the  perfection  of  pure  form  to  a 
point  that  has  never  since  been  reached,  and  the  abundant 
remains  of  Greek  ornament  compel  us  to  believe  that  refined 
taste  was  universal,  and  that  the  country  was  overflowing 
with  skilled  hands  and  minds  so  trained  as  to  enable 
them  to  execute  these  beautiful  ornaments  with  unerring 
precision  and  truth. 

The  beauty  of  Greek  ornament,  however,  lies  almost  exclu- 
sively in  its  symmetry  and  form.  It  is  lacking  in  one  of  the 
greatest  charms  that  should  always  accompany  ornament, 
namely,  symbolism;  and,  despite  the  pleasure  experienced  in 
its  beautiful  gradations  of  form  and  color,  Greek  ornament  is 
meaningless,  purely  decorative,  never  representative,  and  in 
few  cases,  in  the  stricter  sense,  hardly  even  constructive. 


REVIEW     EXERCISES 

1.  To   what  "geological   influence   did   Greece  owe   much  for  the 
artistic  development  of  its  architecture? 

2.  What  is  the  most  artistic  period  of  Greek  history? 

3.  What  were  the  characteristics  of  the  Greeks? 

4.  What  are  the  principal  Greek  cities  in  which  they  erected  archi- 
tectural monuments  of  importance? 

5.  (a]   In  what  class  of  buildings  did  Greek  architecture  reach  its 
fullest  development?     (b)  Which  was  the  most  important  building? 

6.  What  are  the  orders?     Describe  each. 

7.  What  are  moldings?     Describe  each  of  the  Greek  moldings. 

8.  On  a  sheet  of  paper  9  in.  X  1-  in:   (a)  Design,  in  color,  a  border 
composed  of  the  honeysuckle  ornament  or  anthemion,   or  both,  the 
design  to   be  8  inches  long  and   2   inches  high,      (b)   Draw  a  border 
similar  to  the  one  at  the  bottom  of  Fig.  64  and  color  it  in  accordance 
with  the  Greek  idea.    This  design  should  be  2  inches  high  and  S  inches 
long.      (c)    Design  two   tiles  in   Greek   coloring,  each   to  be  3   inches 
square.     Each  of  these  designs  may  be  executed  on  a  separate  sheet  of 
drawing  paper  if  desired. 


80  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

(343  B.  C.  TO  313  A.  D.) 


INFLUENCES 

100.  Geographical. — Italy  is  the  central  one  of  the 
three  great  peninsulas  of  Southern  Europe,  Fig.  71.     It  is 
about  700  miles  in  length,  and  is  separated  from  the  main  land 
on  the  north  by  the  Tyrolean  Mountains.     On  the  other  three 
sides  it  is  surrounded  by  the  Mediterranean  and  Adriatic  seas. 

From  the  map  it  will  be  observed  that  although  the 
peninsula  of  Italy  is  long  and  narrow,  the  coast  is  not  nearly 
so  broken  up  into  bays  and  natural  harbors  as  the  coast  of 
Greece,  and  that  although  the  Apennine  Mountains  run  from 
one  end  of  the  peninsula  to  the  other,  the  land  is  not  like 
Greece,  divided  into  numerous  valleys.  Therefore,  we  at 
once  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  people  that  grew  up 
under  these  two  influences  were  somewhat  strongly  con- 
trasted. The  Romans  were  not  a  seafaring  people;  the 
Greeks  were.  The  Romans  therefore  did  not  colonize  in 
other  parts  of  the  world  in  the  same  manner  as  did  the 
Greeks.  In  the  early  period,  there  were  no  rival  cities  as  in 
Greece,  and  since  no  petty  jealousies  existed  between  the 
smaller  towns,  the  Roman  power  grew  up  in  a  unit  by  the 
absorption  of  smaller  states,  which  was  never  accomplished 
by  either  Athens  or  Sparta. 

101.  Geological. — The  principal  building  material   in 
Greece  was  marble,  but  in  Italy  there  was  not  only  an  abun- 
dance of  marble,  but  terra  cotta,  brick,  and  granite  and  other 
stone  were  in  use  all  over  the  country,  while  individual  local- 
ities produced  a  local  stone  that  in  many  places  character- 
ized an  architectural  development.     There  was  a  very  hard 
limestone,  tripoli,   or  travertin;   tufa,  a  volcanic  substance 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  81 

from  the  hills  about  Rome;  and  peperino,  a  volcanic  stone 
from  Mt.  Albano.  Besides  these,  there  was  an  abundance  of 
lava  on  all  sides,  excellent  sand  and  gravel,  and  a  peculiar 
clean,  sandy  earth  found  in  the  district  near  Rome.  This 
earth  when  mixed  with  lime  and  formed  into  concrete  pos- 
sessed extraordinary  qualities  of  strength  and  durability. 
The  walls  of  Roman  buildings  were  frequently  formed  of 
concrete  and  afterwards  overlaid  with  brick,  cut  stone,  or 
elaborate  and  expensive  marbles,  alabasters,  and  porphyries 
from  Oriental  quarries. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Roman  Empire  spread 
over  the  entire  known  world,  and  as  it  spread  its  architecture 
was  influenced  by  the  materials  found  in  various  localities 
where  it  planted  itself.  However,  the  general  system  of 
building  with  concrete  and  finishing  with  stone  or  brick  as 
an  exterior  material,  was  a  favorite  method  throughout.  In 
some  Oriental  cities,  such  as  at  Palmyra  and  Balbek,  and  in 
Egypt,  stones  of  enormous  size  were  quarried  and  used  in 
the  buildings  locally. 

102.  Climatic. — The  central  and  southern  portions  of 
Italy  are  sunny  and  agreeable,  and  the  south  is  almost  trop- 
ical.    The  north  is  temperate,  and  in  some  sections  experi- 
ences severe  cold  in  winter.     On  this  account,  the  character 
of    the    buildings    varies    somewhat    from    one   end   of    the 
peninsula  to  the  other. 

103.  Religious. — Ancient  Rome  was  a  heathen  country, 
and  the  worship  of  the  gods  was  looked  on  as  a  part  of  the 
constitution  of  the  state.     On  this  account,  the  emperor  was 
looked   on    as   a  person   of   divine   origin,    and  the    temple 
architecture  of  the  period  assumed  an  imperial  appearance, 
entirely  in  contrast  with  the  solemn  dignity  of  the  Egyptian 
and  Greek  temples. 

104.  Political. — In  the  earliest  period  of  its  history, 
Italy  was  occupied  by  three  races.     In  the  northern  part,  on 
both  sides  of  the  river  Po,  were  the  Gauls,  a  people  that  did 
not  take  part  in  Roman  affairs  until  a  later  period.     In  the 
central  portion,  extending  from  the  Arno   River  to  Rome, 

I  L  T  303—7 


82  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

were  the  Etruscans,  a  people  of  obscure  origin,  but  of  high 
civilization,  who  were  skilled  builders  and  craftsmen.  The 
religion  of  the  Etruscans  was  strange  and  gloomy,  but  their 
engineering  achievements  in  the  construction  of  vaults  and 
tombs  influenced  the  architecture  of  future  Rome.  In 
Southern  Italy,  there  were  many  colonies  planted  by  the 
Greeks,  and  these  were  all  included  under  the  name  of 
Magna-Graecia.  The  form  of  Roman  government  was  similar 
to  that  of  Greece;  that  is,  the  towns  and  districts  were  joined 
together  in  a  league  for  mutual  protection.  The  government 
of  Rome  was  first  conducted  under  a  king  chosen  by  the 
people,  and  he  was  assisted  by  one  senator  and  a  popular 
assembly.  In  500  B.  C.,  Rome  became  a  republic,  and  in  27 
B.  C.  it  evolved  into  an  empire.  Under  Augustus,  Nero,  and 
Trajan,  building  acts  were  passed  that  had  material  influence 
in  the  architectural  development  of  the  city. 

105.  Historical. — The  history  of  the  Romans  is  the 
history  of  the  last  of  the  great  people  of  antiquity.  In  the 
8th  century  before  the  Christian  era,  this  great  nation  had  its 
beginning  in  a  small  village,  and  it  subsequently  developed 
until,  at  the  end  of  the  2d  century,  A.  D.,  it  possessed  a  vast 
empire  covering  the  entire  civilized  world.  Although  Rome 
is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  about  750  B.  C.,  the  exact 
date  is  uncertain,  as  the  republic  was  engaged  in  many  wars 
and  absorbed  most  of  the  Etruscan  cities.  Rome  was  defeated 
about  390  B.  C.  by  the  Gauls,  who  continued  to  hold  Northern 
Italy.  About  343  B.  C.,  however,  Rome  began  a  series  of 
wars  that  lasted  60  years  and  resulted  in  the  city  of  Rome 
conquering  the  entire  country  of  Italy  and  in  the  domination 
of  one  city  over  all.  Then  came  a  series  of  wars  with  people 
outside  of  Italy,  and  in  241  B.  C.,  Sicily  became  the  first 
Roman  province.  In  146  B.  C.,  Carthage,  in  Northern  Africa, 
was  destroyed  by  the  Romans,  and  this  territory  became 
another  Roman  province.  About  the  same  time,  Macedonia 
and  Greece  fell  into  Roman  hands,  and  with  the  fall  af  Greece 
in  146  B.  C.  began  the  importation  of  Greek  artists  and 
works  of  art.  The  Greek  Empire  had  then  spread  to 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  83 

Western  Asia,  but  it  became  a  Roman  province  in  133  B.  C. 
In  55  B.  C.,  Caesar  crossed  into  Britain. 

In  the  meantime,  civil  wars  were  breaking  out  near  the 
city  of  Rome  itself.  The  difficulty  of  governing  so  many 
distant  provinces  under  the  old  system  of  a  seat  of  govern- 
ment at  Rome  made  the  adoption  of  an  empire  a  necessity, 
and  in  the  year  27  B.  C.,  Augustus  Caesar  was  made  emperor 
of  Rome  and  he  ruled  until  his  death  in  41  A.  D.  The  reign 
of  Augustus  was  one  of  the  greatest  eras  in  the  world's 
history.  It  has  only  two  parallel  periods  in  modern  times, 
one  of  these  being  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  in  England  and  the 
other  in  the  19th  century,  during  which  great  political  and 
commercial  developments  were  recorded.  During  the  age 
of  Augustus,  the  poets  Virgil,  Horace,  and  Ovid,  and  the  his- 
torian Livy,  were  contemporaries.  After  Augustus  came  a 
long  line  of  emperors,  of  whom  Nero,  Vespasian,  and  Trajan 
all  erected  buildings  that  characterized  their  reign.  Under 
Hadrian,  in  138  A.  D.,  the  empire  expanded  to  its  greatest 
extent.  Following  Hadrian  came  Septimius  Severus,  Cara- 
calla,  and  Diocletian,  who  were  the  most  active  emperors  in 
the  architectural  development  of  Rome. 

Italy  ceased  farming  and  cultivation,  and  depended  on 
imported  products.  The  immense  armies  required  on  every 
frontier  necessarily  dominated  the  policy  of  the  government. 
Emperors  were  murdered  shortly  after  their  election,  and 
chaos  set  in  that  weakened  the  fabric  of  the  great  empire. 
Architecture  being  neglected,  it  naturally  fell  into  decay,  and 
until  the  time  of  Constantine  nothing  was  done  for  its  revival. 
About  313  A.  D.,  this  emperor  issued  a  decree,  called  the 
"Edict  of  Milan,"  in  which  Christianity  was  accorded  the 
same  rights  as  the  official  Roman  religion,  and  in  323  A.  D. 
he  himself  professed  Christianity,  which  then  became  the 
official  religion  of  the  Roman  empire. 

106.  Social. — The  social  customs  of  the  Romans  mate- 
rially influenced  their  architecture  as  did  also  the  customs  of 
the  Greeks  and  other  nations,  but  from  this  time  forward,  as 
will  be  observed,  the  architectural  development  reflects  the 


84  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

manners  and  customs  more  clearly.  Therefore,  it  is  found 
necessary  to  take  this  social  influence  into  consideration,  as 
many  customs  of  the  present  day  have  been  handed  down 
from  the  early  Roman  times. 

The  earliest  Romans  were  a  simple  people  and  lived  chiefly 
on  bread  and  herbs,  but  after  their  conquests,  wealth  was 
acquired  and  the  desire  for  luxury  invaded  all  ranks.  Oriental 
customs  were  imitated,  and  the  dignity  of  the  ancient  Romans 
was  gradually  displaced  by  social.,  gatherings  in  which 
intemperance,  gluttony,  and  debauchery  were  the  leading 
characteristics.  The  Roman  usually  had  three  meals  a  day, 
with  the  principal  meal  in  the  evening,  corresponding  very 
closely  to  the  modern  way  of  living.  The  evening  meal  was 
elaborate  and  consisted  of  many  courses,  the  variety  of  which 
was  unlimited.  The  first  courses  were  followed  by  elaborate 
dessert  courses,  such  as  pastry  and  fruit,  while  liberal 
quantities  of  wine  were  consumed  throughout  the  meal. 

The  Romans  reclined  on  couches  as  they  ate  their  meals, 
the  couches  being  arranged  on  three  sides  of  a  square,  so 
that  the  slaves  could  enter  on  the  fourth  side  to  place  and 
remove  the  dishes.  The  middle  couch  was  the  place  of 
honor.  No  table  cloths  were  used,  but  each  guest  brought 
with  him  a  napkin  that  he  tied  over  his  breast.  Knives  and 
forks  were  unknown;  two  spoons  were  used  at  each  meal. 
The  feasts  were  usually  illuminated  by  oil  lamps,  which  were 
exquisite  pieces  of  workmanship  in  bronze  and  silver,  but 
the  functions  were  greatly  marred  by  the  oil  dripping  on  and 
soaking  the  table,  while  the  thick,  black  smoke  curled  up 
and  discolored  the  walls  and  rested  in  flakes  of  soot  on  the 
clothing  of  the  guests. 

107.  The  Romans  spent  much  of  their  time  in  their 
large  and  elaborate  baths.  A  cold  plunge  in  the  river  Tiber, 
which  served  its  purpose  with  the  early  Romans,  gave  place 
under  the  empire  to  the  most  luxurious  and  elaborate  system 
of  hot  baths  that  the  world  has  ever  known.  The'Romans 
visited  their  baths  as  they  would  their  clubs,  and  took  the 
dip  six  or  eight  times  a  day.  The  theater,  with  tragedies 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  85 

and  comedies,  the  circus  and  the  amphitheater,  with  their 
brutal  exhibitions,  formed  the  principal  amusements.  At  the 
circus,  they  bet  on  their  favorite  horses  or  charioteers,  the 
same  as  is  done  in  modern  times.  At  the  amphitheater,  they 
reveled  in  the  bloody  combats  of  gladiators  and  beasts,  the 
most  brutal  of  all  historical  pastimes.  Captives,  condemned 
slaves,  or  convicted  criminals  were  given  a  chance  to  save 
their  lives  by  fighting  with  another  of  the  same  sort.  Des- 
perately would  these  men  fight  over  sand  that  had  grown  red 
with  the  blood  of  their  fellow  men  and  their  own,  but  writh 
parched  lips  and  aching  hearts  they  fought  on  knowing  that 
a  brave  fight  would  likely  win  freedom.  Combats  of  gladi- 
ators, or  professional  fighters,  were  styled  feasts,  and  at 
times  whole  armies  of  them  fought  at  once.  When  Emperor 
Trajan  returned  from  his  triumph  in  Asia  Minor  ten  thousand 
gladiators  fought  in  the  arena  at  one  time. 

108.  The  household  work  was  done  by  various  classes 
of  slaves.  In  the  earliest  times,  a  few  were  sufficient,  but 
during  the  empire,  a  separate  slave  was  provided  for  each 
piece  of  work.  There  were  slaves  not  only  to  manage  the 
household  and  to  take  care  of  the  wine  cellars,  the  bedrooms, 
the  kitchen,  etc.,  but  there  were  slaves  to  carry  the  litter 
and  attend  to  their  masters.  Some  were  readers,  some 
were  secretaries,  some  were  physicians;  others  were  retained 
solely  for  amusement,  as  dancers  and  jesters.  All  of  them 
were  ranked  under  two  heads:  bought  slaves  and  inborn 
slaves.  There  was  a  slave  market  in  which  the  more  com- 
mon slaves  were  bought  and  sold  like  cattle,  but  the  more 
valuable  were  disposed  of  by  private  sale. 


86  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


CHARACTERISTICS 

109.  With  Roman  architecture,  the  study  of  ancient 
architecture  ends  and  that  of  modern  architecture  begins. 
The  Roman  style  of  design  has  been  used  in  modified  form 
throughout  all  subsequent  eras,  except  the  epoch  known  as 
the  Middle  Ages,  which  gave  birth  to  a  new  style.  It  will  be 
well  to  bear  in  mind  all  the  details  that  characterize  the 
Greek  temples  and  tombs  when  following  the  thread  of 
architectural  history  through  the  expansion  of  the  Roman 
empire.  The  Romans  introduced  the  arch  as  an  architec- 
tural detail,  and  combined  it  with  the  column  and  beam  of 
the  Greek  style,  thereby  giving  rise  to  new  architectural 
forms  and  practically  to  new  forms  of  the  orders  themselves. 

As  Greek  architecture  is  characteristically  a  trabeated 
style,  so  is  Roman  architecture  characteristically  an  arcuated 
style.  But  there  is  one  great  difference  in  the  general 
character  of  the  two  styles.  The  Greek  buildings  were 
simply  ornamented  construction,  the  entire  system  con- 
sisting of  columns  and  beams  decorated  to  give  architec- 
tural character  to  the  building.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
Roman  style,  the  column  and  the  beam  played  no  part  in  the 
construction,  but  served  simply  as  ornament.  The  walls 
were  built  either  of  concrete  or  of  heavy  stone  blocks.  The 
apartments  were  covered  over  with  vaults,  and  the  building 
could  be  completed  practically  in  this  rough  state.  The  piers 
that  supported  the  vaults  were  ornamented  by  columns  placed 
against  them,  and  the  courses  between  different  stories  were 
emphasized  by  entablatures  corresponding  to  the  orders 
beneath.  The  semicircular  openings  that  marked  the  end  of 
a  vault  were  decorated  by  planting  around  them  a  portion 
of  the  architectural  entablature  of  the  order  in  which  it  was 
found.  These  buildings  could  have  been  stripped  of  their 
architectural  decoration — their  columns,  entablatures,  and 
pediments— and  structurally  they  would  scarcely  have  been 
impaired  and  no  doubt  would  have  been  equally  as  service- 
able as  before.  Strip  a  Greek  building  of  any  of  its  archi- 
tectural decorations,  and  the  building  itself  is  destroyed. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  87 

As  the  style  proceeds,  the  arch  used  only  as  a  decorative 
feature  finally  assumes  a  more  structural  form,  and  in  some 
of  the  basilicas  it  is  found  spanning  spaces  between  a  series 
of  columns  on  either  side  of  the  aisles.  From  this  isolated 
position  its  influence  can  be  traced  in  the  establishment  of 
characteristic  forms  in  the  great  Gothic  cathedrals  of  the 
middle  ages. 

110.  Greek  architecture  was  confined  almost  exclusively 
to  temples  and  tombs;  whereas,  Roman  architectural  con- 
structions consist  of  baths,  amphitheaters,  aqueducts,  bridges, 
tombs,  basilicas,  or  courts  of  justice,  fora,  or  open  markets, 
and  triumphal  arches — all  tending  to  show  Rome's  greatness, 
engineering  ability,  and  skill  in  using  materials  at  hand  with 
the  best  possible  results. 

The  refined  Greek  system  of  building  with  large  blocks  of 
finely  cut  stone  without  mortar  was  set  aside  for  a  more 
economical  system  by  the  practical  Roman.  The  large 
blocks  of  stone  were  used  for  carved  decorations  and  osten- 
tatious display  on  the  outside  of  buildings,  while  the  small 
pieces  and  fragments  from  the  quarry  were  mixed  with  lime 
mortar  and  made  into  concrete  for  wall  construction.  Since 
broken-stone  concrete  could  be  made  in  any  country  and  was 
easily  worked  under  the  direction  of  a  general  superintendent, 
Roman  buildings  presented  a  similarity  in  appearance,  no 
matter  whether  they  were  erected  in  Southern  Italy  or  in 
Northern  Europe.  Buildings  of  this  character  required  only 
rough  labor  of  the  cheapest  kind,  and  any  one  quite  unused 
to  the  art  of  building  could  be  pressed  into  service.  The 
Romans  therefore  called  on  slaves  and  local  subjects  that 
were  liable  to  labor  for  the  state,  and  even  men  from  the 
army  were  pressed  into  service.  The  punishment  of  crimi- 
nals in  many  instances  included  their  condemnation  to  work 
on  public  buildings.  Thus,  we  find  a  condition  of  affairs 
that  would  easily  enable  the  Romans  to  erect  the  mighty 
structures  that  they  did  throughout  the  length  and  breadth 
of  the  empire.  Roman  ruins  in  western  Europe  affected 
subsequent  architecture  from  Spain  to  England. 


88 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


50 


FIG.  72 


111.  One  of  the  strongest  characteristics  in  Roman 
construction  was  the  use  of  the  vault.  All  openings  and 
passageways  were  covered  with  some  form  of  this  device, 
and  a  certain  freedom  of  planning  was  the  result.  There 

were  no  restrictions  as  to 
the  size  or  shape  of  a  room 
that  could  be  covered  with 
some  sort  of  vault.  There 
were  three  general  forms 
of  vault  used  for  this  pur- 
pose: the  semicircular,  or 
barrel,  vault,  the  cross-vault, 
and  the  dome.  The  first 
was  constructed  by  simply 
laying  a  wooden  semi- 
cylinder  on  top  of  the 
walls  and  laying  over  it  concrete  of  the  required  thickness. 
When  the  concrete  had  hardened  the  semicylinder  was 
removed,  and  the  vault  remained  a  part  of  the  walls  them- 
selves, as  shown  in  Fig.  72.  The  cross-vault  consisted  of 
two  intersecting  cylinders 
placed  at  right  angles  to 
each  other,  thus  permitting 
columns  to  be  used  in  the 
support  under  their  four 
groins,  or  corners,  as  in 
Fig.  73,  instead  of  long 
walls,  as  in  Fig.  72.  This 
permitted  long  compart- 
ments to  be  covered  by  a 
series  of  vaults  supported 
by  intermediate  columns. 
Circular  structures  were 
usually  covered  by  domes 
that  were  hemispherical  in  form.  These  were  constructed 
by  laying  concrete  over  a  wooden  hemisphere  that  was 
supported  on  the  circular  wall  to  be  roofed. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  89 


EXAMPLES 

112.  Fora.— The  forum  was  an  open  space  in  the  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  city,  and  was  used  as  a  public  market  or 
a  meeting  place   for  political   gatherings.     It  corresponded 
closely  to   some  of  the  public  squares  or  small  parks  in  a 
modern  city.     The  forum  was  usually  surrounded  by  elaborate 
architectural  constructions,  such  as  colonnades,  public  build- 
ings, temples,  basilicas,  and   statues  of  great  men.     Rome 
possessed  several  fora.     As  will  be  observed  from  the  above 
description,  the  forum  probably  consisted  more  of  a  group 
of  architectural   buildings   than   of    any   single    architectural 
detail. 

113.  Temples. — Roman    temples    were    the    result    of 
building  from  models  furnished  by  Greece  with  materials  and 
methods  used  in  Rome.     The  characteristic  Roman  temple 
was  pseudo,  or  falsely,  peripteral.     It  had  no  side  colonnades, 
as  in  the  more  .important  Greek  temples,  but  the  order  of  the 
temple  appeared  on  the  sides  in  the  form  of  attached  columns, 
or  pilasters,  Fig.  74,  while  the  porch  extended  in  front  only, 
Fig.  75.     Steps  at  the   front  descended  between  projecting 
walls,  and  these  often  formed  a  pedestal  for  statuary.     This 
pedestal  was  frequently  carried  out  in  detail  around  the  entire 
building,  and  was  termed  a  podium.     Roman  temples  differed 
in  proportion  from  Greek  temples,  the  latter  being  usually 
about  twice  as  long  as   they  were  wide,  while  the   Roman 
temples    were    much    shorter.     The    size    of    the    cella   was 
usually  increased  to   the   whole  width   of  the    temple,    and 
was    generally    used    as    a    museum   for    statuary,  or    as    a 
treasury.      There  are  also   numerous    examples    of   circular 
and  octagonal  temples.     See  Fig.  76. 

114.  Among  the  rectangular  examples  found  in  Rome  is 
the  Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis,   Fig.  74,  which  was  erected 
in  100  B.  C.     This  is  a  typical  Roman  temple  in  plan,  being 
pseudoperipteral,  Ionic  tetrastyle.    Another  example  of  rect- 
angular architecture  is  the  Corinthian  Temple  of  Antoninus 
and  Faustina,  at  Rome,  which  was  erected  141  A.  D.     It  is 


90 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


pseudoperipteral  and  prostyle  hexastyle,  and  is  now  used  as 
the  Church  of  St.  Lorenzo.  In  France,  at  Nimes,  there  is 
another  Corinthian  temple,  Fig.  75,  now  popularly  known 


FIG.  74 


as  the  Maison-Carree,  or  square  house.  This  structure  was 
erected  in  138  A.  D.,  during  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  and  is 
the  best  preserved  Roman  temple  in  existence.  The 
entablatures  were  richly  carved,  and  statues  originally 


94  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

ornamented  the  pedestals  in  front.  These  are  typical  rect- 
angular temples  that  remain  today,  to  show  us  the  general 
character  of  Roman  structures. 

115.  Of  the  circular  temples  remaining,  we  have  the 
Temple  of  Mater-Matula,  at  Rome,  Fig.  76,  formerly  known 
as  the  Temple  of  Vesta.  This  structure  is  circular  per- 
ipteral, of  Parian  marble,  and  is  approached  by  marble 
steps.  It  was  originally  domed  over  the  cella,  but  is  now 
covered  with  a  frame  roof  directly  over  the  columns.  At 
present  it  is  used  as  the  Church  of  S.  M.  del  Sole. 

The  Pantheon  at  Rome,  Fig.  77,  is  a  circular  structure 
having  an  internal  diameter  of  142  feet  6  inches,  which  is 


FIG.  7 


also  its  height.  The  walls  are  20  feet  in  thickness,  and  con- 
tain eight  niches,  or  recesses.  In  front  of  each  of  these 
recesses  is  a  pair  of  columns.  On  the  exterior  is  a  Cor- 
inthian octastyle  portico,  the  columns  of  which  are  42  feet 
6  inches  high.  The  dome  over  this  circular  structure  is  a 
hemisphere,  and  is  coffered  on  the  interior  to  form  a  number 
of  panels.  In  the  center  of  the  dome  is  a  circular  opening 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


95 


27  feet  in  diameter.  This  forms  the  sole  means  of  illumi- 
nating the  interior,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  78.  The  building 
is  now  used  as  the  Church  of  S.  Maria  Rotonda. 

Another  circular  temple  is  the  Temple  of  Vesta  at 
Tivoli,  19  miles  from  Rome.  This  structure  is  peripteral, 
has  a  cella  24  feet  in 
diameter,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  peri- 
style of  eighteen 
Corinthian  columns, 
each  being  23  feet 
6  inches  high. 

116.     Basilicas. 

Basilicas  were  erected 
as  halls  of  justice,  but 
were  often  used  by 
merchants  as  places 
of  exchange.  They 
represent  some  of  the 
handsomest  buildings 
that  ever  existed  in 
Rome,  and  are  monu- 
ments to  the  impor- 
tance that  the  Romans 
attached  to  the  affairs 
of  law  and  equity. 
They  are  of  interest, 
too,  in  their  influence 
on  the  subsequent 
Christian  architec- 
ture, as  will  be  pointed 
out  later.  The  plan 
of  the  basilica  was  a 
rectangle,  as  shown  in  the  Basilica  of  Trajan,  Fig.  79,  the 
length  of  which  was  twice  the  width,  or  more  in  many  cases. 
Two,  and  occasionally  four,  rows  of  columns  extended  through 
the  length  of  the  building,  dividing  it  into  aisles,  over  which 


FIG.  79 


96 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


galleries  were  sometimes  constructed.  The  entrance  was 
either  at  one  side  or  one  end,  and  usually  opposite  the  entrance 
was  a  semicircular  termination  called  an  apse,  on  which  was  a 
raised  dais,  or  platform,  upon  which  the  tribunal  sat.  Arranged 


Fin.  (-0 

around  the  platform  were  seats  for  the  assembled  orators  and 
other  persons  interested  in  the  matters  on  trial.  In  front  of 
the  tribunal  was  an  altar  on  which  sacrifices  were  offered 
before  the  beginning  of  all  important  business.  The  buildings 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  97 

were  usually  covered  with  a  wooden  roof,  and  the  exterior 
was  generally  simple  and  unimpressive.  The  interior,  how- 
ever, was  elaborately  decorated  with  marble  and  carvings. 

Other  arrangements  of  the  basilica  included  the  vaulting 
of  the  ceiling,  which  was  carried  on  a  number  of  piers,  as  in 
the  Basilica  of  Maxentius,  Fig.  HO,  thus  avoiding  the  neces- 
sity of  many  columns.  The  Basilica  of  Maxentius  was 
265  feet  long  by  83  feet  wide,  and  was  crowned  by  an 
immense  groined  vault  in  three  compartments  120  feet 
above  the  pavement.  The  aisles  running  north  and  south 
were  roofed  with  semicircular  vaults  76  feet  in  span.  There 
were  two  apses,  one  to  the  north  and  the  other  to  the  west 
end  of  the  central  nave.  Light  was  introduced  by  lunettes, 
or  circular  windows,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  nave,  through 
the  wall  formed  by  the  intersecting  vaulting. 

1  17.  Public  lisitlis. — The  public  baths,  or  thermce,  were 
characteristic  of  Roman  civilization  and  corresponded  largely 
in  their  national  standing  with  the  gymnasiums  of  the  Greeks. 
All  of  these  baths  are  now  in  ruins,  but  important  remains 
exist  in  Rome  and  Pompeii.  However,  much  interesting 
information  can  be  found  on  the  subject  from  writings  of  the 
Italian  architect  Palladio,  who,  in  the  16th  century,  prepared 
essays  in  which  they  are  described.  The  Roman  thernifs  took 
the  place  of  the  daily  newspaper  and  of  the  club,  and  was  a 
general  meeting  place  in  social  life.  Here  all  Rome  gathered 
to  gossip  and  to  hear  the  news  of  the  day.  A  small  entrance 
fee  amounting  to  about  a  quarter  of  a  cent  was  charged, 
although  later  they  were  thrown  open  entirely  free. 

In  general  arrangement,  there  was  one  section  set  aside 
for  the  baths  proper,  the  process  of  which  was  very  similar 
to  the  modern  Turkish  bath.  A  warm  room,  called  the 
tepidarium,  was  provided  in  which  the  bathers  could  rest. 
Other  rooms  of  varying  degrees  of  heat  provided  places  of 
extreme  temperatures,  cold  plunges  with  dressing  rooms, 
rooms  for  massage  and  annointment,  and  places  for  games, 
libraries,  and  even  occasionally  a  theater.  In  some  of  the 
baths,  space  was  laid  out  as  a  stadium,  with  raised  seats  for 

I  L  T  303—8 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


spectators.  Various  athletic  sports,  such  as  races,  wrestling, 
and  boxing,  took  place.  Rooms  for  lectures  were  provided, 
and  every  feature  conceivable  to  add  to  the  pleasure  of  inland 
life  was  made  a  part  of  these  great  institutions. 

118.  The  baths  of  Caracalla  at  Rome  had  accommodations 
for  sixteen  hundred  bathers.     The  building  and  its  gardens 
were  raised  on  a  terrace  that  was  20  feet  high  and  about 
£  mile  square.     Under  this  terrace  were  vaulted  chambers 
that  were  used  as  stores,  furnaces  for  heating  water,  and 
hot-air  ducts.     It  is  easy  to  conceive  that  buildings  as  impor- 
tant to  the  public  as  these  would  be  richly  ornamented  and 
lavishly  designed.      Sumptuous    internal    magnificence   was 
desired   in  all  of  these  great  institutions.      The  pavement 
was  mosaic,  being  arranged  either  in  geometrical  patterns 
or  in  inlaid  designs  representing  athletes  and  dancing  girls. 
The  lower  walls  were  sheathed  with  colored  marble,  and  the 
upper   portion  was  covered  with  stucco    in    bright  colors. 
Columns  of  granite,  porphyry,  and  alabaster  supported  the 

vaults,  and  these  were  richly 
coffered  and  garnished  with 
ornamental  figures  in  metal  and 
mosaic.  The  finest  sculpture  of 
antiquity  was  displayed  through- 
out these  sumptuous  halls,  much 
of  it  being  brought  from  Greece 
or  executed  in  Rome  by  Greek 
artists.  The  various  basins  and 
plunges  were  constantly  supplied 
with  streams  of  sparkling  water 
flowing  from  the  mouths  of 
sculptured  lions  or  griffins 
wrought  in  polished  silver,  pro- 
ducing in  themselves  the  most 
cooling  effect  during  the 
heavy,  sultry,  summer  weather. 

119.  Theaters    and    Amphitheaters. — The    Romans 
adopted  the  Greek  idea  of  the  theater,  but  instead  of  carrying 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


99 


the  outline  of  the  auditorium  to  more  than  a  semicircle, 
they  restricted  it  to  simply  a  semicircle.  The  stage  was 
raised  considerably,  and  was  treated  with  great  richness  and 


FIG.  S2 


elaboration.  Where  the  condition  of  the  country  permitted, 
the  theaters  were  erected  on  a  side  hill;  but  under  other 
conditions,  the  art  of  vaulting-  enabled  them  to  construct  the 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  101 

upper  portion  on  a  tier  of  corridors  and  get  quite  the  same 
result.  The  theater  of  Marcellus,  at  Rome,  is  the  only 
existing  example  in  that  city.  These  arcades  were  faced  in 
the  usual  Roman  manner  with  columns  and  entablatures,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  81,  wherein  the  Doric  order  was  used  in  the 
first  story  and  the  Ionic  order  above.  The  building  has 
been  altered  recently  by  walling  up  the  arches  and  convert- 
ing the  fagade  into  a  solid  front,  but  the  outlines  of  the 
original  openings  may  still  be  traced,  as  in  Fig.  82.  This 
structure  originally  consisted  of  two  stories  of  arcades 
around  a  semicircular  auditorium. 

120.  The  amphitheaters,  however,  are  characteristic 
Roman  amusement  buildings.  They  are  found  in  various 
sizes  in  every  important  Roman  city,  and  were  used  for  naval 
exhibitions,  gladiatorial  contests,  mimic  battles,  etc. 

The  Flavian  amphitheater  of  Rome,  Fig.  83,  usually  called 
the  Colosseum,  on  account  of  its  great  size,  was  commenced 
in  70  A.  D.  In  plan  it  was  a  vast  ellipse  620  feet  long  and 
513  feet  wide.  Each  story  of  this  structure  possessed  eighty 
openings  on  the  outside  wall,  those  on  the  ground  floor 
forming  entrances.  The  area  of  the  arena,  or  center,  was 
180  ft.  X  287  ft.  surrounded  by  a  wall  15  feet  high.  The  seats 
were  cut  out  of  solid  stone,  raised  one  behind  the  other  from 
the  arena,  and  were  supported  by  vaulting  over  corridors  and 
staircases  below.  Under  the  lowest  tier  of  seats  were  located 
dens  for  wild  beasts,  and  these  opened  directly  into  the  arena. 
In  the  auditorium,  the  seats  were  divided  into  four  ranges, 
the  two  lower  tiers  being  separated  from  the  third  by  means 
of  a  wall.  Access  to  the  top  row  of  seats,  which  was  added 
later,  was  by  means  of  staircases  between  the  radiating 
walls  and  by  corridors  leading  from  the  eighty  entrances. 
On  the  exterior,  the  building  was  four  stories  in  height,  the 
openings  being  arched  in  the  lower  stories  and  flanked  with 
columns,  while  the  upper  story  was  a  flanked  wall  with  pilas- 
ters, between  which  were  brackets  to  support  the  masts,  which 
in  turn  carried  an  immense  velarium,  or  awning,  extending 
over  all  of  the  seats.  In  no  building:  of  Roman  construction 


102 


in:; 


104 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


is  the  character  of  architecture  more  clearly  expressed  than  in 
this.     These  four    stories  erected  of  concrete,  with  arches 

between  immense   piers, 
constitute  the  building. 

121.  Triumphal 
Arches. — In  Rome  it 
was  customary  when  an 
emperor  or  a  general  won 
a  great  victory  to  erect  an 
arch  of  triumph  in  his 
honor.  These  structures 
sometimes  consisted  of 
simply  a  single  arch  sup- 
ported by  two  buttresses 
and  ornamented  with  char- 
acteristic decorations,  and 
often  three  arches  were 
used — a  large  one  in  the 
middle  and  a  smaller  one 
on  each  side.  Above  the 
architectural  composition 
was  usually  an  attic,  or 
surmounting  mass  of  stone- 
work, carrying  an  explana- 
tory inscription.  The  arch 
of  Titus,  Fjg.  84,  is  an 
example  of  the  single-arch 
type,  and  was  erected  in 
70  A.  D.  to  commemorate 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem. 
On  each  side  of  the  arch 
are  columns  attached  to  the 
surface.  The  archway  is 
ornamented  with  deep 
coffers,  and  on  the  inner  jambs  are  carvings  in  relief,  one  side 
representing  the  emperor  in  a  triumphal  car  and  the  other 
showing  the  spoils  taken  from  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 


FIG. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  105 

Many  of  these  arches  still  exist,  and  the  arch  of  Constan- 
tine  of  Rome,  Fig.  85,  erected  in  312  A.  I).,  is  a  good  example 
of  the  three-arch  type.  This  was  built  in  honor  of  the  victory 
over  Maxentius.  Corinthian  columns  entirely  detached  from 
the  structure  support  the  entablature,  which  projects  out  over 
the  capital  of  each  column  and  returns.  The  attic  extends  the 
full  width  of  the  composition,  which  is  76  feet,  and  elaborately 
carved  figures  rest  on  pedestals  over  each  of  the  columns. 
Originally,  a  two-wheeled  chariot  and  horses  surmounted 
the  top. 

122.  Pillars  of  Victory. — Pillars  of  victory,  or  memo- 
rial   columns,    instead    of    arches,  were   sometimes  used   to 
record    these    triumphs.     The    famous    Trajan's    column   in 
Rome,  shown  in   Fig.  86,  furnishes  a  good  example  of  this 
kind  of  monument.     This  is  a  simple  column  of  the  Doric 
order,  and  rests  on  a  pedestal  about  17  feet  square  and  18  feet 
high.     The  column  is  12  feet  in  diameter  and  147  feet  high. 
Around  it  is  a  winding  spiral  of  sculptures  containing  twenty- 
five  hundred  human  figures,   besides   animals  and  chariots, 
representing  the  extent  of  Trajan's  war  with  the  Dacians. 

123.  Tombs. — The  Romans  practiced  both  burial  and 
cremation,  and  in  their  tombs  are  frequently  found  sarcophagi 
and  metal  urns.    There  are  several  varieties  of  Roman  tombs. 
First,   those  in  which  vases   of  ashes  or  remains  in  coffins 
wrere  placed  in  subterranean  vaults  or  caves,  now  familiarly 
known  as  the  catacombs.    There  were  monumental  tombs  that 
were  square  or  circular  and  crowned  with  a  pyramidal  roof. 
The  most  important  of  these  is  the  Tomb  of  Cecilia  Metella, 
near    Rome.      It   is  circular,  94  feet  in  diameter  and  about 
50  feet  high  from  the  base  to  the  top  of  the  cornice.     The  wall 
is  divided  into  three   general  parts  corresponding  approxi- 
mately to  the  proportions  of  the  Corinthian  order.     The  wall 
space  occupies  the  column  height  and  the  cornice  and  base 
are   proportioned    to   correspond   with    the   entablature    and 
pedestal  of  the  order.     The  facing  and  cornice  were  of  marble 
and    the    freize    was    enriched    with    elaborate    carvings    of 
garlands  and  ox  skulls. 


106 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


50 


The  side  walls  were  rusticated;  that  is,  built  of  stones  with 
rebated  joints  so  as  to  leave  the  centers  in  raised  panels. 

Originally,  the  roof  was  domed  over  in  a  somewhat  conical 
form,  but  during  the  middle  ages  alterations  were  made,  and 
the  battlemented,  or  notched,  superstructure  was  added. 

Pyramid  tombs,  influenced  by  Egyptian  ideas,  also  existed, 


FIG.  87 


and  smaller,  isolated  monuments  are  often  seen. 
East,  there  were  rock-cut  tombs. 


In  the  far 


124.  Aqueducts  and  Bridges. — The  Romans  did  not 
hesitate  to  build  immense  aqueducts  for  conveying  water  to 
their  cities.  Rome  itself  required  immense  quantities  of 
water  for  public  use,  fountains,  baths,  etc.  The  local  service 
being  poor,  immense  aqueducts  had  to  be  built  far  into  the 
mountains.  These  aqueducts  consisted  of  a  series  of  arches 
over  which  a  cement-lined  channel  was  carried,  and  sometimes 
formed  bridges.  The  bridges  were  built  across  streams  on 
'immense  arches  that  extended  on  piers  from  bank  to  bank. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  107 

125.  Palaces. — Of  the  Roman  palaces,  there  is  nothing 
left  but  ruins  and  a  few  historical  records.  Enough  remains, 
however,  to  show  that  they  were  enormous  structures  of  the 
most  imposing  character.  The  chief  apartments  in  the 
palaces  of  the  emperors  were  the  throne  room;  the  basilica, 
or  justice  hall;  the  peristylium,  a  square  garden  surrounded 
by  a  colonnade;  the  banqueting  hall;  the  bathing  room;  and 
an  apartment  set  aside  for  statues  of  the  gods.  Besides 
these,  there  were  sleeping  rooms  and  many  smaller  apart- 
ments, the  uses  of  which  have  not  been  preserved. 


ANALYTICAL  STUDY 


PLANS 

126.  The  essential  differences  between  the  plans  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  buildings  are  first,  size;  and  second,  refine- 
ment. The  Greek  plans  were  comparatively  small,  the  pro- 
portion being  the  element  of  first  importance,  whereas  the 
Roman  plans  attempted  to  give  an  elaboration  of  vastness 
and  magnificence.  The  Romans  were  great  constructors, 
and  did  not  hesitate  to  build  immense  bridges  and  aqueducts 
to  convey  water  from  great  distances.  Their  entire  empire 
was  an  example  of  vastness,  and  enormous  buildings  were 
characteristic  of  their  work.  The  Greeks  were  simple,  artis- 
tic, and  refined  in  their  tastes.  Each  section  of  Greece 
founded  an  example  of  one  or  more  of  the  three  styles  of 
architecture.  Purity  and  severity  of  outline  of  the  simple 
post  and  beam  construction  did  not  lend  a  great  variety,  and 
therefore  each  building  was  studied  for  simplicity  in  itself. 
The  plan  had  to  be  considered  in  detail  first  as  on  it 
depended  the  size  and  spanning  of  the  columns.  The 
Romans  took  the  arch,  vault,  and  dome,  and  on  these 
keyed  the  whole  system  of  construction.  Unlimited  open- 
ings could  be  spanned,  and  by  means  of  the  vault  and  dome 
immense  areas  could  be  covered.  The  enclosing  and  the 
covering  of  these  buildings  were  thus  simple  matters,  and  it 


108  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

became  purely  a  matter  of  ornamentation  to  applique",  or 
"stick  on,"  the  architectural  orders  and  their  details  in  order 
to  give  style  to  these  buildings.  The  Greek  temples  were 
delicately  proportioned,  simply  designed,  and  usually  orien- 
tated; that  is,  they  faced  the  east.  The  Roman  temples 
were  elaborate  and  complicated,  and  no  attention  was  paid 
to  orientation.  

WALLS 

127.  Greek  buildings  were  constructed  of  large  blocks 
of  marble,  no  mortar  being  used  to  unite  them,  and  stability 
was  secured  solely  by  the  observance  of  the  laws  of  gravita- 
tion. The  buildings  were  completed  and  the  entire  surface 
polished  to  give  an  even  finish.  The  walls  of  Roman  build- 
ings were  constructed  of  small,  coarse,  and  crude  materials. 
Concrete  was  made  of  brick  or  rubble  mixed  with  cement, 
and  was  bonded  regularly  to  give  it  proper  strength.  These 
walls  were  faced  with  an  ashlar  of  marble  or  other  stone, 
and  the  architectural  effect  was  obtained  from  this  facing. 
The  Roman  system  of  building  was  very  economical,  as  all 
scraps  and  chippings  could  be  used  to  make  the  concrete  of 
which  the  walls  were  composed  that  enclosed  their  building. 


ROOFS 

128.  In  the  Greek  temples,  the  slope  of  the  roof  deter- 
mined the  form  of  the  pediment.  The  eaves  presented  a 
row  of  richly  carved  antefixae  at  the  end  of  each  run  of  tiles, 
and  gargoyles  in  the  form  of  lions'  heads  served  as  spouts 
from  which  rainwater  was  discharged.  In  Rome,  the  vault 
covered  all  important  areas.  Wood  construction  was  fre- 
quently used,  and  in  many  instances  formed  the  decorative 
element  for  a  ceiling.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  Roman  roofs 
were  of  terra  cotta  or  of  bronze,  but  the  roof  formed  no 
architectural  detail  of  the  building,  as  the  walls  were  crowned 
with  parapets  and  balustrades  that  effectively  hid  the  roof 
construction.  The  pediment,  like  the  orders,  was  used  only 
as  a  detail  to  be  applique"d  to  the  walls. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  109 

COLUMNS 

129.  When  the  Romans  adopted  the  Greek  orders,  they 
altered  them  materially  to  suit  their  own  conditions,  and  the 
result  was   not   an   artistic   one.     The   three    simple   orders 
of  the  Greeks  being  insufficient  for  the  elaborate  construc- 
tions of  the  Romans,  two  others  were  invented,  the  Tuscan 
order,  which  is  simpler  than  the  Doric,  and  the  Composite 
order,  which   is   more   elaborate   than   the   Corinthian.     In 
connection  with  each  of  the  orders,  the  pedestal  was  intro- 
duced, and  although  the  relation  of  the  diameter  to  the  length 
of  the  column  varied  in  each  order,  the  proportions  of  the 
pedestals  and  entablatures  remained  about  the  same. 

130.  In  Fig.  88  is  shown  a  group  of  the  five  orders  of 
architecture   according  to   the    Roman   standard,  which  was 
first  published  by  Vignola,  an  Italian  author,  in  1563  A.  D. 
The    height    of    the    Tuscan    column  A    is    seven  times  its 
diameter,  that  of  the  Doric  B  eight,  the  Ionic  C  nine,  and 
the  Corinthian  D  and  the  Composite  /:,  ten.     The  pedestal 
is  always  one-third  the  column  height,  and  the  entablature 
one-fourth   to  one-fifth. 

The  Tuscan  order  seems  to  be  a  modified  form  of  the 
Doric,  while  the  Roman  Doric  order  is  a  much  elaborated 
form  of  the  Doric.  It  will  be  observed  in  comparing  these 
two  orders  that  the  Tuscan  column  is  unfluted  and  that  the 
base  consists  of  a  single  torus  molding  separated  from  the 
shaft  by  a  fillet;  its  architrave  and  frieze  are  unbroken,  and 
its  cornice  consists  of  the  fewest  possible  simple  moldings. 
In  the  Doric,  however,  the  base  is  similar  to  the  Tuscan,  but 
the  shaft  is  grooved  with  flutes  that  meet  in  an  arris,  as  did 
the  Greek  Doric  column.  The  echinus  is  ornamented  with 
an  egg-and-dart  pattern,  while  the  frieze  exhibits  the  charac- 
teristic triglyph  of  the  Doric  order  and  the  soffit  of  the 
cornice  is  supported  on  a  mutule.  The  space  between  the 
mutules  is  coffered  and  paneled.  The  peculiar  difference 
between  the  Greek  Doric  and  the  Roman  Doric  orders  is 
exhibited  in  the  fact  that  when  a  triglyph  occurs  at  the  end 


no 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  111 

of  a  Greek  composition,  it  is  placed  at  the  angle  of  the  build- 
ing, as  can  be  seen  in  the  illustration  of  the  Parthenon, 
Fig.  42,  but  in  all  cases  it  is  placed  over  the  center  of  the 
column  in  Roman  style.  Moreover,  there  were  two  forms 
of  the  Doric  order  characteristic  of  Roman  art — one  whose 
cornice  was  decorated  with  mutules,  and  the  other  where  a 
row  of  dentils  was  substituted,  thus  practically  introducing 
elements  of  the  Ionic  order  in  the  Doric  composition. 

The  Ionic  order  bears  a  resemblance  to  its  Greek  proto- 
type. The  scrolls,  however,  are  smaller  and  less  refined. 
The  base  is  simplified,  and  consists  of  a  scotia  between 
a  large  and  a  small  torus  molding.  This  base  is  usually 
known  as  the  attic  base.  The  entablature  is  rendered  more 
complicated  by  dividing  the  architrave  into  three  bands,  and 
frequently  by  decorating  the  frieze. 

The  Corinthian  and  the  Composite  orders  are  practically  of 
the  same  general  proportion  and  style,  the  only  difference 
being  the  amount  of  ornamentation  and  elaboration.  The 
Roman  Corinthian  order  is  heavier  and  more  elaborate  than 
the  Greek  Corinthian.  Where  mutules  supported  the  cornice 
of  the  Doric  order,  a  new  element  in  the  form  of  a  bracket, 
or  console,  was  introduced  in  the  Corinthian.  The  abacus  of 
the  capital  is  no  longer  square,  as  the  sides  are  concaved. 
The  Composite  order  possesses  the  same  characteristic  as 
the  Corinthian,  except  that  the  scrolls  are  larger,  making  the 
capital  appear  like  a  combination  of  the  Ionic  and  the 
Composite.  In  the  Corinthian  order,  the  small  scrolls  at  the 
top  of  the  capital  seem  to  grow  naturally  out  of  the  foliage, 
while  in  the  Composite  order,  the  forms  of  the  four-sided 
corona  seem  to  be  set  on  top  of  the  foliage.  The  soffit  of 
the  corona  is  coffered  in  some  instances,  and  large  consoles, 
or  dentils,  or  both,  are  frequently  used  to  support  it.  The 
Composite  order  was  always  elaborately  decorated,  rich 
carving  being  an  essential  part  of  its  composition.  The 
columns  were  nearly  always  fluted,  but  examples  exist,  as  in 
the  Pantheon,  where  rich  granite  and  marble  columns  were 
left  smooth  to  show  the  beautiful  characteristics  of  the 
materials.  In  some  examples,  the  capitals  were  gilded. 


112  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

131.  From    the    foregoing,    it    would    seem    that    the 
architectural  orders  as  used  by  the   Romans  were  purely 
decorative  features.     Strongly  contrasted   is  this  with  the 
orders  as  used  by  the  Greeks,  with  whom  the  columns  were 
structural    necessities.     A    pair   of    columns    and    a    beam 
represents    the    entire    theory    of    Greek    architecture.      In 
Rome,  however,  as  has  been  said  before,  the  orders  were 
appliqued  on  the  surface  of  the  buildings,  and  possessed  no 
structural   importance    whatever.     In    the    Roman    art,   the 
columns  were  frequently  superimposed  one  over  another  and 
supported  on  pedestals.    When  orders  were  so  superimposed, 
the  arrangement,  according  to  a  general  established  custom, 
was  from  the   sturdy   column   of   the   Tuscan   order   at  the 
bottom  to  the  more  delicate  Corinthian  and  Composite  at  the 
top.     The  lower  stories  of  buildings  were  usually  designed 
in  the   Doric  order,   while   the   superimposed    stories  were 
designed  successively  in  the  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Composite. 
In  Greek  architecture,  however,  the  buildings  were  apparently 
never  more  than  one  story  in  height;  thus,  only  one  order  of 
columns  was  used  on  the   exterior.     Superimposed  orders 
have  been  known  where  galleries  existed  on  the  interior,  but 
they    are    of    minor    importance    and    therefore    cannot   be 
compared  with  the  Roman  system. 

132.  The   Doric  order  was  especially  favored   by   the 
Greeks  and  was  considered  the  most  important.     It  was  used 
without  a  base  and  is  found  in  all  of  the  most  important 
temples.     This    order,    however,    was    rarely   used    by    the 
Romans,  as  it  was  too  simple  for  their  ideas  of  splendor. 

The  Ionic  order  was  executed  with  great  refinement  by  the 
Greeks,  its  capitals  showing  scrolls  on  two  sides  only.  This 
order  with  the  Romans  was  designed  to  show  four  sides  of 
the  volutes,  and  the  entablature  was  greatly  enriched. 

From  the  records  of  Grecian  art,  the  Corinthian  order 
exists  in  only  two  cases,  and  both  examples  indicate  a  decline 
of  this  art,  when  sculpture  gave  way  to  mere  stone  carving. 
It  was  used  in  small  buildings  only,  and  was  simple  in  form. 
With  the  Romans,  however,  the  Corinthian  order  was  favored. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  113 

It  was  used  in  all  of  their  largest  temples  and  most  important 
buildings.  Instead  of  being  simple,  the  Corinthian  is  the 
most  elaborate  of  all  of  the  borrowed  orders.  The  frieze 

x 

and  architrave  were  elaborately  carved,  and  the  moldings 
were  enriched  with  small  ornaments.  The  consoles  and 
modillions  introduced  in  the  cornice  were  also  elaborately 
carved.  In  both  cases  of  the  Greek  examples,  the  shaft  was 
fluted;  whereas,  in  Rome,  the  shaft  is  found  to  be  plain  or 
fluted,  according  to  the  material  of  which  the  columns  were 
constructed. 

The  Composite  order  was  invented  by  the  Romans  in  order 
to  secure  a  more  elaborate  scheme  of  decoration.  The  Ionic 
and  Corinthian  capitals  were  combined,  and  the  general 
details  of  the  Corinthian  order  were  elaborated  in  order  to 
secure  the  richness  demanded  by  the  Rodman  taste. 


OPENINGS 

133.  In  Greek  architecture,  the  openings  are  of  small 
importance,  the  treatment  of  them  being  severe.  The  effects 
of  light  and  shade  on  the  buildings  were  obtained  by  the  flank- 
ing columns.  Doorways  and  windows  were  square-headed, 
and  occasionally  they  were  crowned  by  a  cornice  supported 
on  consoles,  as  in  the  Erechtheum.  In  Roman  architecture, 
however,  the  openings  were  features  of  great  importance. 
Some  were  square-headed,  and  some  semicircular.  The  semi- 
circle as  a  window  head  was  frequently  divided  by  vertical 
mullions,  or  sometimes  by  a  mullion  up  to  the  center  of  the 
arch,  where  it  was  crossed  by  a  transom  bar. 


MOLDINGS 

134.  Greek  moldings  were  introduced  in  order  to  produce 
refined  effects  of  light  and  shade  on  the  graceful  contour 
they  possessed.  Where  dentils  were  introduced,  they  were 
well  spaced  and  occupied  the  whole  depth  of  the  molding. 
The  Romans,  however,  destroyed  the  contour  of  their  mold- 
ings by  the  introduction  of  carvings.  Greek  moldings  were 

I  L  T   303—9 


114 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


always  conic  sections;  the  Roman  moldings,  sections  of  a 
circle.  No  attempt  at  refinement  of  form  was  made,  but 
every  effort  was  put  forth  for  elaborate  display.  Roman 
dentils  are  placed  close  together  and  are  not  cut  to  the  full 
depth  of  the  moldings.  Under  the  cornices  of  the  Roman 
orders,  however,  consoles  are  introduced  to  serve  as  brackets 
for  their  support,  whereas  the  Greeks  only  use  consoles  as 
vertical  brackets  on  the  side  of  doorways,  as  in  the  Erech- 
theum.  The  Romans  occasionally  used  the  vertical  console 
in  the  center  of  their  arches  to  serve  as  a  keystone. 


ROMAN    ORNAMENT 

135.     It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  find  original  types  in 
Roman  ornament.     Most  of  their  ideas  were  borrowed  from 

Greece  and  were  adapted 
to  their  particular  pur- 
pose. In  their  carved 
work,  we  find  less  con- 
ventionalism than  is 
characteristic  of  the 
Greeks,  and  a  stronger 
tendency  to  favor  elabo- 
ration. The  acanthus 
was  much  used  in  scroll 
patterns  and  on  the 
capitals  of  the  Corin- 
thian and  composite 
orders,  but  the  scroll 
patterns  never  pre- 

PIG.  89  ,     .. 

sented   the  refinement 

of  the  Greek.  Instead  of  a  parent  stem  from  which  radiated 
offshoots,  the  Roman  ornament  consisted  usually  of  one 
scroll  growing  out  of  another  scroll  and  ending  in  a  flower, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  89.  The  Romans  did  not  excel  either  in 
sculpture  or  painting,  and  in  many  cases  show  great  vul- 
garity of  sentiment.  They  were  fine  judges  of  rare  marbles, 
however,  and  in  many  instances  made  up  for  their  lack  of 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  115 

skill  in  painting  by  their  tasteful  selection  of  rich  marbles 
for  dados,  wall  surfaces,  pilasters,  and  friezes.  These  were 
imported  from  every  part  of  the  known  world,  and  no  expense 
was  spared  to  produce  the  richest  effects  possible  with  these 
materials.  Many  of  the  friezes  of  the  Roman  entablatures  are 
decorated  with  carvings  representing  ox  skulls,  between  which 
festoons  and  garlands  of  fruit  and  flowers  are  hung.  These 
designs  are  supposed  to  have  originated  from  actual  skulls 
and  garlands  that  were  hung  on  alters  at  which  these  beasts 
had  been  slain,  thus  showing  the  origin  in  all  its  crudity  of 
their  decorative  motifs.  Wall  paintings  as  seen  in  Roman 
architecture  were  probably  by  Greek  artists  and  are  charac- 
teristic of  the  villas  of  Pompeii.  These  will  be  considered 
later. 

ROMAN     HOUSES 

136.  The  Roman  dwelling  was  a  simple  structure,  and 
had  its  principal  apartments  on  the  ground  floor.  The 
entrance  vestibule  was  simply  an  unroofed  hall  and  was 
generally  lined  on  either  side  by  a  row  of  graceful  statues. 
The  floor  of  the  threshold  was  usually  of  mosaic  marble,  in 
which  was  inlaid  the  word  Salve,  meaning  "welcome." 
Beyond  this  doorway  was  the  atrium,  or  forecourt,  a  large 
central  reception  hall  with  wings  on  either  side,  from  which 
it  was  separated  by  pillars.  The  floor  of  the  atrium  was 
generally  mosaic  of  colored  marble  or  glass,  the  walls  were 
carved  and  painted,  and  the  roofs  contained  bright  gardens 
in  which  one  could  walk  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  Beyond 
the  atrium  was  a  large  room  called  the  peristyle,  so  named 
on  account  of  its  surrounding  line  of  columns.  In  the  serv- 
ice rooms,  could  be  found  sideboards  loaded  with  gold 
and  silver  plates,  amber  vases,  beakers  of  bronze,  and  glass 
vessels  from  Alexandria,  the  tints  of  which  rivaled  the  opal 
and  the  ruby. 

Of  course  this  description  is  of  the  residences  of  the 
wealthy.  The  poor  people  lived  the  best  they  could,  but  as 
a  matter  of  fact  the  rich  of  this  period  were  without  many 
of  the  comforts  and  conveniences  that  the  poor  enjoy  today. 


116 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


POMPEIAN    ARCHITECTURE 

137.  Pompeii  was  a  distant  suburb  of  Rome.  The 
architecture  of  Pompeii  can  hardly  be  considered  a  style 
by  itself;  it  was  a  combination  of  the  Greek  and  late  Roman. 
There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  dwelling  houses  in 
Pompeii  were  copied  from  dwellings  of  the  Greeks.  That 
Greek  artists  were  employed  in  their  decorations,  there  is 
not  the  shadow  of  a  doubt.  These  residences  consisted  of 
an  atrium  with  a  peristyle  beyond,  around  which  were  grouped 
the  family  apartments.  The  street  fronts  of  the  houses  were 


FIG.  90 

plain,  and  were  usually  occupied  as  shops,  or  stores,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  90.  No  windows  existed  toward  the  street  sides,  as, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  glass  or  other  suitable  material,  no 
privacy  could  be  attained  with  street  openings  from  the 
rooms.  The  atrium  and  peristyle  were  only  partly  roofed 
over,  and  light  entered  the  private  rooms  from  these  apart- 
ments, while  a  basin,  or  impluvium,  in  the  middle  of  the 
apartment  served  to  catch  the  rainwater  as  it  drained  from 
the  roof.  As  a  rule,  Pompeian  houses  were  only  one  story 
high,  but  traces  of  stairways  in  existing  examples  tend  to 
indicate  that  upper  floors  were  occasionally  used.  The 
example  shown  in  Fig.  88  is  known  as  the  House  of  Pansa. 
It  faced  on  three  streets  and  had  a  garden  in  the  rear. 


ROMAN    POMPEIAN   DECORATION 


FIG.  91 


§  50    161 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  117 

138.  Pompeian  Wall  Decoration. — Pompeian  wall 
decoration  consisted  of  a  panel  treatment  wherein  the 
wall  was  usually  subdivided  into  three  parts,  corresponding 
to  the  pedestal,  the  column,  and  the  entablature  of  the 
orders.  The  colors  were  rich  and  the  subjects  exceedingly 
conventional.  Representations  of  villas  and  balconies  in 
perspective  were  very  common,  as  was  also  the  introduction 
of  figures,  dancing  girls,  etc.,  somewhat  after  the  Greek 
style.  The  colors  used  were  very  brilliant,  red  and  black 
being  used  profusely  for  purposes  of  contrast.  The  pictures 
on  the  walls  were  frequently  framed  with  architectural  details 
consisting  of  slender  shafts  and  delicate  entablatures,  which 
were  nearly  always  rendered  in  a  crude  form  of  perspective. 
Pompeian  decoration  may  be  considered  as  a  reflection  of 
painted  decorations  that  could  be  found  in  the  Roman  baths 
and  other  public  buildings.  This  is  a  style  that  is  more 
characteristic  of  Pompeii  and  one  that  does  not  associate 
with  Roman  art,  as  all  of  its  elements  are  far  too  delicate  to 
be  suggestive  of  the  elaborate  and  ostentatious  decorations 
that  must  have  adorned  the  walls  of  Roman  buildings.  See 
Fig.  91. 

REVIEW    EXERCISES 

1.  What  are  the  chief  characteristics  of  Roman  architecture? 

2.  What  new  architectural  detail  did  the  Romans  introduce? 

3.  What  are  the  essential   differences  between  Roman   and  Greek 
architecture? 

4.  Of  what  material  were  Roman  walls  chiefly  built? 

5.  What  were  the  principal  Roman  structures? 

6.  Describe  the  Roman  residence  and  the  manners  and  customs  of 
the  nation. 

7.  In  what  manner  did  the  Romans  make  use  of  the  Greek  orders? 

8.  On  a  sheet  of  paper  9  in.  X  12  in.,  make  an  outline  elevation  of: 
(a)  the  arch  of  Titus;   (b)   the  arch  of  Constantine.     Omit  all  details, 
but  carry  out  the  proper  proportions  of  the  orders. 

9.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  elevation  of  the  tomb  of  Cecilia  Metella 
from  the  description  given  in  Art.  123. 

10.  Write  out  a  complete  description  of  Fig.  75,  76,  77,  or  83,  giv- 
ing every  detail  so   that  a  drawing  of  it  could  be  made  from   your 
written  description.     A  similar  description  is  given  in  Art.  12."J. 


118  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE 

(300  A.  D.  TO  604  A.  D.) 


INFLUENCES 

139.  Geographical. — In  323  A.  D.  Emperor  Constan- 
tine  removed  the  capital  of   the  empire  from  Rome  to  the 
old  Greek  city  of  Byzantium,  now  generally  known  as  Con- 
stantinople (see  map,  Fig.  71).     Before  this  time,  many  of 
the  Roman  emperors  lived  in  Milan,  Nicomedia,  and  other 
cities,  but  the  transfer  of  the  capital  to  a  Greek  city  indicates 
how  completely  the  Roman  Empire  had  grown  to  overshadow 
the  city  of  Rome  and  even  the  peninsula  of  Italy  itself.     It 
should  therefore  be  borne  in  mind  that  during  all  of   the 
period  heretofore  discussed,  the  term  Rome  applied  practi- 
cally to  the  civilized  portion  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  and 
that  the  city  of  Rome  was  a  small  factor  after  the  empire  was 
established.    On  the  death  of  Theodosius,  in  395  A.  D.,  the 
Roman  Empire  was  divided  between  his  two  sons,  and  from 
that  period  the    history   of    Rome    divided    itself   into  two 
distinct  epochs  and  the  architecture  of  the  world  developed 
into  two  separate  styles.     The  Western,  or  Latin,  Empire 
preserved    many  of  the  customs  and  traditions  of  the  old 
Romans,  but  the  Eastern,  or  Byzantine,  Empire,  absorbed 
Oriental  ideas  and  gradually  developed  new  systems,  differ- 
ent government,  religion,  and  architecture. 

140.  Geological. — Roman   buildings,    many    of  which 
were  in  ruins  and  scattered  from  one  end  of  the  empire  to 
the  other,  not  only  afforded  material  from  which  Christian 
structures  could  be  built,  but  at  the  same  time  influenced  the 
architectural   treatment  by  furnishing  ideas  as  to  how  the 
buildings   could   be    erected.     The    Christians,    in    erecting 
churches  for  their  own  purposes,  took  the  ready-made  columns 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  119 

from  the  Roman  structures  and  either  adapted  them  at  first 
to  their  new  conditions,  or  adapted  the  conditions  to  the 
architectural  style  of  the  ancient  Roman  days. 

141.  Religious. — No    event    in    history    presents    so 
remarkable  a  phenomenon  as  the  rise  and  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  4th  century  A.  D.     After  the  Romans  adopted 
Christianity  as  a  state  religion,  in  324  A.  D.,  it  spread  to  the 
furthermost  corners  of  the  empire,  a  diffusion  that  was  ren- 
dered possible  only  by  the  condition  of  the  other  religions 
at  that  time.     As  far  back  as  the  time  of  Augustus,  several 
religious    beliefs    were    recognized    throughout    Rome,   but 
with  the  exception  of  the  Jews,  all  were  pagans  and  poly- 
thiests.     The  religious  rites    performed  by  the  Romans  in 
their  temples  were  decidedly  political  and  failed  to  impress 
the  populace  with  any  deep  respect  for  the  deity,  and  it  was 
evident  on  every  side  that  the  people  had  little  faith  in  their 
gods  and  therefore  were  ready  to  adopt  a  new  religion  that 
was  simple  and  easily  understood. 

142.  The  persecutions  of  the   Christians  in   subsequent 
periods  of  Rome  were  not  religious  persecutions,  but  political 
ones.     The    Roman    Empire    had    ever   been   noted   for   its 
tolerance  of  the  religions  of  other  nations,  but  Christianity 
was  a  religion,  not  of  a  nation,  but  of  a  sect,  and  it  stated 
that  all  other  religions  were  false,  must  be  abandoned,  and 
through  its  disciples  it  endeavored  to  draw  into  its  ranks  as 
many  as  possible  from  all  walks  of  life.     The  Christians  held 
their  meetings  in  secret  places  and  in  the  catacombs,   and 
thus  effected  a  strong  and  numerous  body  that  was  considered 
dangerous  from  a  political  standpoint.     But  their  recognition 
by  Constantine  raised  them   at  once   to  a  political  body  of 
Rome,  and  all  obstinacy  that  had  heretofore  impeded  Chris- 
tianity development  was   at  once   swept  away,  and  though 
not  emanating  from   a   nation,   the   religion   dominated   the 
Roman  people  and   was   destined   to   dominate   all   Europe. 
The  early  Christian  architectural  period  is  generally  taken 
from  the  reign  of  Constantine  to  the  reign  of  Gregory  the 
Great,  about  the  years  300  to -604  A.  D. 


120  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

143.  Political  and  Historical. — While  Oriental  civil- 
ization was  exerting  its  influence  over  the  Eastern  Roman 
Empire,  the  Western  Empire,  comprising  what  was  afterward 
Italy,  France,  and  Spain,  continued  to  exist  as  the  Latin 
country.  The  Gothic  tribes  that  had  for  centuries  inhabited 
the  countries  to  the  North,  had  ever  been  dangerous  enemies 
of  Rome,  but  their  contact  with  the  Romans  acquainted  them 
with  Roman  civilization  and  its  Christianity,  and  the  Goths 
gradually  became  Christians  by  the  teachings  of  a  bishop 
named  Ulfilas.  The  invasions  of  Italy  from  the  North  com- 
menced about  376  A.  D.,  and  the  various  barbaric  tribes 
clustered  around  the  northern  part  and  finally  crossed  and 
conquered  Rome  in  476  A.  D. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  century,  the  Tartars  and  the 
Huns,  being  driven  from  Eastern  Asia,  invaded  Europe, 
defeated  the  Goths,  and  established  a  new  kingdom  of 
Hungary  north  of  the  Danube.  The  Goths  appealed  to 
Emperor  Valens,  who  then  ruled  at  Constantinople,  to  allow 
them  to  cross  to  the  south  side  of  the  Danube.  Permission 
was  granted  on  the  barbaric  condition  that  they  should  give 
up  their  children  and  their  arms.  This  being  agreed  to, 
Roman  boats  were  provided,  and  the  fugitives  were  trans- 
ferred apparently  according  to  the  agreement.  However, 
although  they  surrendered  their  children  with  little  concern, 
they  paid  all  they  had  in  money  to  bribe  the  Roman  officers 
to  be  allowed  to  keep  their  arms.  In  this  way  a  million  souls 
settled,  sword  in  hand,  within  one  of  the  patural  frontiers  of 
the  Roman  Empire.  Almost  immediately,  disagreements 
arose  and  they  turned  their  arms  against  Emperor  Valens 
and  advanced  toward  Constantinople.  In  378  A.  D.,  the  first 
battle  took  place  at  Hadrianople,  where  Valens  lost  his  life. 
The  Goths  then  spread  themselves  over  this  fertile  country 
to  the  confines  of  Italy  and  the  Adriatic  Sea. 

Under  Theodosius  the  Great,  who  succeeded  Valens,  the 
Goths  settled  down  to  live  with  the  Romans  in  peace,  and 
many  of  them  took  service  in  the  Roman  armies.  At  the 
death  of  Theodosius,  however,  they  revolted,  and  precipitated 
themselves  on  Italy  and  completely  overran  the  peninsula. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  121 

144.  The  Western  Empire  was  now  fast  dissolving,  and 
in  the  early  part  of  the  5th  century,  Britain  was  evacuated 
by  the  Romans  and  was  soon  overrun  by  the  Angles  and 
Saxons,    barbaric    tribes    from     Northern    Germany.     The 
Teutonic  tribes  from  the  North  rushed  into  Gaul,  and  from 
Gaul   into    Spain.      Spain   was   conquered   by   the   Vandals, 
a  Moorish  tribe  from  Northern  Africa.     The  Huns  that  had 
driven  the  Goths  into  the  Eastern  Empire,  now  started  under 
Attila   to   conquer   the  world.     With    this    intention,    a   half 
million   savages   crossed   the   Rhine  and  pierced  the  center 
of  Gaul,  but  were  soon  defeated  by  the  united  power  of  the 
Romans,    Goths,    and    Franks.      Attila   then    entered   Italy, 
where  he  was  again  defeated,  and  finally  he  returned  to  his 
kingdom  of  Hungary.     No  sooner  had  Attila  departed  than 
the  Vandals   from  Africa  crossed  and  anchored  their  ships 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Tiber.     They  attacked  and  captured 
the  city  of  Rome  in  455  A.  D.,  and  for  two  weeks  the  Van- 
dals and  Moors  wrecked  and  pillaged  the  city,  carrying  ship- 
loads of  captives  and  treasures  back  to  Carthage.     During  all 
of  this  time  there  were  still  emperors  in  Rome,  but  the  real 
power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  barbarians,  and  the  emperors 
themselves    were    merely    figureheads    until    476,  when  the 
barbarians  overthrew  the  emperor  and  their  leader  Odoacer 
was  proclaimed  king  of  the  peninsula  of  Italy.     The  Roman 
Empire  was  thus  broken  up,  and  the  separate  countries  of 
Europe  left  to  take  form. 

145.  As  previously  stated,  the  period  of  early  Christian 
architecture  extends  from  the  reign  of  Constantine,  300  A.  D., 
to  that  of  Gregory  the  Great,  604  A.  D.     During  the  reign  of 
Gregory  the  Great,  the  Latin  language  and  the  early  Chris- 
tian architecture,  which  was  based  entirely  on  Roman  prin- 
ciples of  construction,  ceased  to  exist,  and  for  200  years  new 
languages   developed    in    different    parts   of    Europe,    while 
architecture  was  practically  at  a  standstill.     The  languages 
that  developed  in  the  different  sections  were  all  based  on  the 
Latin  tongue,  but  through  the  influence  of  the  conquering 
barbarians,    Spanish,    French,   English,    German,   etc.,   were 


122  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

developed.  During  these  two  centuries,  the  traditions  of 
ancient  Rome  were  gradually  forgotten.  Each  country  had 
its  own  king  and  was  occupied  solely  in  its  own  affairs.  The 
Church  grew  in  power  and  preserved  the  thread  of  history. 
Through  the  influence  of  the  Church  and  the  necessity  of 
working  economically  with  the  materials  at  hand,  instead 
of  following  the  heavy  engineering  methods  of  the  Romans, 
a  new  style  of  architecture  developed. 


CHARACTERISTICS 

146.  Early  Christian  architecture  developed  so  gradually 
from  the  Roman  style  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  tell 
where  one  style  ends  and  another  commences,  and  this  is 
the  case  throughout  all  periods  of  art,  although  the  transi- 
tion stage  is  more  apparent  as  we  advance  toward  the  later 
styles.  The  early  Christians  had  very  little  money  at  their 
disposal,  and  in  order  to  erect  a  place  of  worship,  a  method 
of  construction  had  to  be  followed  that  required  few  tools 
and  economical  materials.  Roman  temples  were  now  useless 
for  their  original  purpose,  as  the  old  pagan  religion  had  dis- 
appeared, and  where  these  temples  were  large  enough  and 
in  suitable  condition  they  were  adopted  just  as  they  stood 
for  the  purpose  of  Christian  worship.  New  churches  were 
occasionally  built  on  the  model  of  the  old  Roman  basilica, 
and  in  these  new  constructions,  columns  and  other  details 
from  the  ruins  of  classic  buildings  were  frequently  intro- 
duced. Therefore,  in  these  early  Christian  buildings  are 
found  columns  of  different  sizes  and  orders,  with  no  attempt 
at  proportion  of  diameter  to  height.  If  a  column  were  too 
short,  pieces  of  stone  in  the  form  of  a  plinth  were  placed 
below  it;  if  too  long,  it  was  cut  off.  Thus  we  find  a  lack 
of  symmetry  and  unity  in  the  details  of  these  buildings, 
strongly  illustrative  of  the  poverty  of  the  time.  However, 
though  this  period  may  be  of  interest  to  the  archeologist,  the 
buildings  erected  are  of  little  value  to  the  architectural  stu- 
dent, as  they  present  no  distinct  style,  or  even  a  borrowed 
style,  but  a  reunion  of  materials  to  serve  the  new  purpose. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  123 

147.  The  early  basilican  church  had  three  or  five  aisles. 
In  one  form  of  these  churches,  a  wooden  roof  was  used  as  a 
covering,  after  the  manner  of  the  Basilica  of  Trajan,  Fig.  79, 
while  in  others  the  roof  was  vaulted,  similar  to  the  Basilica 
of  Maxentius,  Fig.  80.     From  one  form  of  this  early  Chris- 
tian church,  the  Gothic  style  of  architecture  developed   in 
Western  Europe;  from  the  other  form,  the  Byzantine  style 
in  Eastern  Europe. 

148.  The  plan  of  the  basilica  as  used  by  the  Romans 
for  a  hall  of  justice  was  accepted  by  the  early  Christians 
as  the  most  suitable  arrangement  for  their  particular  form 
of  worship.     These  structures  served  as  stepping  stones  to 
the  Gothic  cathedrals,  which  certainly  were  developed  from 
the  basilican  plan.     So  suitable  has  this  plan  proved  that 
down  to   the  present  clay  few  alterations  have  been  made 
in  it.     The  semicircular  apse,  raised  and  railed  off  from  the 
main  part  of  the  building,  was  a  most  suitable  place  for  an 
altar,  while  the  wide,  open  aisles  provided  ample  space  for 
the  assembling  of  the  congregation. 

When  structures  were  erected  later,  purposely  for  the  use 
of  the  church,  the  same  plan  was  adhered  to,  and  the  build- 
ings were  still  called  basilicas.  But  instead  of  keeping  all 
the  aisles  parallel  with  the  length  of  the  building  a  cross- 
aisle,  called  the  transept,  was  introduced  near  one  end,  and 
the  sides  of  the  building  were  extended  somewhat  at  the 
extremities  of  this  aisle,  thus  converting  the  rectangular 
plan  to  the  form  of  a  cross.  The  center  aisle  from  the 
transept  to  the  entrance  then  became  known  as  the  nave  of 
the  church,  and  the  part  from  the  transept  to  the  apse  was 
called  the  choir.  The  nave  was  usually  built  to  extend  above 
the  roofs  over  the  side  aisles  in  order  to  form  a  clearstory 
for  the  admission  of  light,  and  windows  were  introduced  in 
the  side  walls  for  the  same  purpose.  The  walls  at  the  ends 
of  the  church,  however,  and  particularly  those  of  the  apse, 
were  left  solid  in  the  early  basilicas  and  were  decorated  with 
paintings  and  mosaics. 


124 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


50 


EXAMPLES 

149.  The  first  three  edifices  erected  solely  for  the  pur- 
pose of  Chrisfian  worship,  were  the  basilicas  of  St.  Peter, 
St.  John  Lateran,  and  St.  Paul.  The  first  named  was  by  far 
the  finest,  being  380  feet  long  and  212  feet  wide.  All  three 
possessed  five  aisles  (though  later  basilicas  were  limited  to 
three),  and  the  central  aisle,  or  nave,  of  St.  Peter's  measured 
80  feet  across. 

The  structures  each  fronted  on  a  large,  open  courtyard, 
or  atrium,  where  converts  to  the  faith  and  candidates 


FIG.  92 

for  baptism  assembled.  The  atrium  was  considered  a  most 
important  adjunct  to  the  early  basilicas,  but  was  abandoned 
when,  after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  church  became 
an  independent  power  and  structures  were  erected  in  remote 
districts,  away  from  the  influence  of  their  early  Roman  proto- 
types. In  the  Roman  residence,  the  atrium  had  been  the  place 
where  all  functions  were  held  and  it  thus  became  a  natural 
adjunct  to  edifices  where  Christians  assembled  for  worship. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  125 

150.  The  interiors  of  these  buildings  were  rich  in  effect, 
and   elaborate  wall  decorations  of    glass   mosaic  were   fre- 
quently placed  in  a  broad  band  around  the  nave  arcade  and 
lined  the   bottom  of   the   apse   at  the  end,  as  shown  in  the 
basilican  church  of  St.  Paul,  Fig.  92.     This  illustration  also 
shows  the  rich  timber  ceiling  divided  into  compartments  that 
were  elaborately  decorated  and  gilded. 

The  pavements  of  these  structures  are  also  details  of 
great  interest,  as  they  were  made  of  stone  and  rich  marbles 
laid  in  geometrical  bands  to  produce  a  pattern.  Old  columns 
were  cut  into  slices,  thus  forming  central  circles  around 
which  patterns  could  be  worked  in  other  stone. 

There  were  in  all  thirty-one  basilican  churches  in  Rome, 
all  of  which  were  made  up  largely  of  fragments  of  early 
pagan  buildings.  They  were  very  similar  in  general  detail, 
and  the  basilica  of  St.  Paul  is  characteristic  of  their  general 
style. 

151.  Baptisteries. — Baptisteries    form    another    class 
of    building    characteristic    of    early   Christian   architecture. 
Originally,    these   structures  were  used  only   for  baptismal 
ceremonies,  from  which  they  derive  their  name.     Their  form, 
which  is  usually  circular,  was  derived  from  the  circular  tombs 
and  temples  of  the  Roman  Empire.     As  a  rule,  the  baptis- 
teries were  detached  buildings  adjoining  the  atrium  of  the 
basilica,  and  not  until   the  end  of  the  6th  century  was  the 
baptismal  font  placed  within  the  walls  of  the  church. 

1 52.  Tombs. — One  of  the  first  Christian  tombs  recorded 
is  that  erected  by  Constantine  for  his  daughter,  in  330  A.  D. 
This  tomb  had  a  dome  35  feet  in  diameter  and  was  supported 
upon  twelve  pairs  of  granite  columns.     It  was  converted  into 
a  church  in  1256  A.  D. 

It  will  be  observed  that  a  great  change  of  purpose  has  taken 
place  in  tombs  since  the  days  of  early  Egypt,  when  the  final 
resting  place  for  the  dead  was  but  a  small  chamber  in  an 
immense  stone  structure  like  the  pyramids.  Tombs  and 
temples  were  separate  structures  then,  but  thereafter  the 
tombs  of  important  personages  were  erected  in  the  churches. 


126  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


ANALYTICAL  STUDY 


PLANS 

153.  The  early  Christians  adopted  the  basilican  model 
for  their  churches,  but  at  the  same  time  pressed  into  service 
public  halls,  baths,  dwelling  houses,  and  pagan  temples,  so 
that  each  of  these  structures  had  some  influence  in  the 
development  of  the  later  church  plan. 


WALLS 

154.  The  walls  were  constructed  somewhat  according  to 
the  old  method,  of  rubble  and  concrete,  and  were  faced  with 
some  decorative  material  or  plaster.    Internally,  glass  mosaic 
was  largely  used.  

ROOFS 

155.  Roofs  of  wood  covered  the  nave   and  were  sup- 
ported by  ordinary  trusses,  which  gave  them  a  slant  for  the 
shedding  of  water  and  presented   an    opportunity  for    the 
decoration  of  the  visible  framework  within.    The  aisles  were 
also  covered  with  a  wooden  roof,  though  sometimes  vaulted, 
and  the  apses  at  the  end  were  generally  domed  over  and 
lined  with  mosaic.  

COLUMNS 

156.  In  the  early  Christian  buildings,  the  columns  were 
taken  from  Roman  constructions  that  had  fallen  into  decay,  01 
that  were  purposely  destroyed  to  obtain  building  material. 
These  early  Christians  were  not  good  craftsmen  and  were 
unable  to  create  anything  original  for  themselves.     Thus, 
today,  we  find   in   nearly   all  of  the  most  important  early 
churches    of    Rome,    columns    taken    from    ancient    Roman 
buildings.     These    columns    were    frequently    different    in 
diameter,  design,    and   order,    so    that   no   uniformity  was 
attained. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  127 


OPENINGS 

157.  The  doors  and  windows  were  usually  semicircular- 
headed,  after  the  pagan  model.  The  windows  were  small 
and  were  confined  to  the  aisles  of  the  church.  The  nave 
of  the  church  was  lighted  by  a  series  of  small  windows 
high  in  the  nave  wall,  forming  a  clearstory  above  the  aisle 
roof,  which  thus  established  a  detail  that  afterwards  became 
characteristic  of  the  early  Gothic  church. 


MOLDINGS    AND    ORNAMENT 

158.  The   moldings  are   of    the  crudest  possible  char- 
acter— unskilled    attempts    to   work    out   the    Roman    types 
resulting  in  very  crude  effects. 

Color  predominated  in  all  the  decorative  attempts,  most  of 
the  effects  being  obtained  by  mosaic.  Long  friezes  of  figures 
above  the  nave  arcades  and  between  the  clearstory  windows 
were  executed  in  mosaic.  The  background  is  usually  of 
gold,  and  the  figures  are  simple  and  well  suited  to  the  posi- 
tion they  occupy,  but  the  method  of  working  is  crude,  no 
attempt  being  made  at  neatness  or  uniformity  in  joints  and 
bedding.  Such  ornament  as  can  be  derived  from  the  laying 
of  geometrical  patterns  and  mosaic  pavements  are  charac- 
teristic of  the  general  ornament  of  this  period. 

159.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  early  Christian  period  repre- 
sents the  transition  from  the  ancient  to  the  modern.     It  is 
not  a  style   borrowed   by   itself  and  possesses   none   of   the 
characteristics  of  an  individual  style,  but  it  is  the  stem  from 
which  branched  the  two   great  styles  of  the  middle  ages — 
Byzantine  in  the  East  and  Romanesque  in  the  West. 

A  clear  understanding  of  this  period  is  necessary  in  order 
that  the  student  may  follow  closely  the  development  of  the 
two  subsequent  and  contemporary  styles.  These  two  styles 
are  destined,  under  the  peculiar  religious  and  political 
influences  that  followed,  to  blot  out  all  memory  of  the  pure 
classic  forms,  for  a  thousand  years. 


128  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


REVIEW    EXERCISES 

1.  Between  what  dates  is  the  period  of  early  Christian  architecture 
included? 

2.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  basilica  plan? 

3.  When  was  Christianity  made  the  state  religion  of  Rome? 

4.  What  were  the  characteristics  of  early  Christian  buildings? 

5.  When   did   the  individual  countries  of    Europe  begin   to  form 
under  separate  governments? 

6.  In  what  countries  of  Europe  were  there  Roman  remains  to  influ- 
ence later  architectural  constructions? 

7.  Under  what  rulers  or  statesmen  were  the  greatest  architectural 
developments:     (a)  in  Greece?  (6)  in  Rome? 

8.  Write  a  short  essay  upon  the  development  of  architecture  and 
ornament  from   the  days  of  early    Egypt    to    the    beginning   of    the 
4th  century  A.  D.,  illustrating  where  necessary  with  pencil  sketches 
or  tracings. 


HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 
AND  ORNAMENT 

(PART  2) 


MEDIEVAL  ARCHITECTURE 

1 .  From  the  early  Christian  architectural  style  developed 
the  two  great  structural  systems  of  the  middle  ages — the 
Byzantine  in  the  East  and  the  Gothic  in  the  West.  The 
former  was  based  directly  on  Roman  designs  rather  than  on 
a  transitional  style  that  intervened  between  the  fall  of  Rome 
and  the  perfection  of  the  system,  whereas  the  Gothic  style 
was  slowly  evolved  from  the  Romanesque,  which  in  itself 
was  developed  from  the  early  Christian  endeavors  to  use 
the  Roman  structures  for  their  Christian  ritual. 

The  Byzantine  style  was  at  once  rich  with  colored  marbles, 
elaborate  mosaics,  and  tiled  pavements,  as  Byzantium  was 
the  capital  of  the  Eastern  Empire  and  a  rich  commercial 
center,  with  the  artistic  spirit  of  Greece  and  the  splendor 
and  extravagance  of  Rome  ever  before  it  as  models  of  archi- 
tectural style,  whereas  the  early  Gothic  style  was  economical 
and  bare,  depending  for  its  beauty  entirely  on  the  proportions 
of  its  parts  and  the  relative  value  of  its  masses.  Gothic 
architecture  developed  in  parts  of  Europe  where  the  splendor 
of  Rome  had  failed  to  reach,  and  the  people  were  in  no 
position  to  try  to  rival  the  wonders  of  the  capital  city,  yet 
they  accomplished  this  without  knowing  it. 

§50 

I  LT  303—10 


130 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE 

(395  A.  D.  TO  1453  A.  D.) 


INFLUENCES 

2.  Geographical. — The  ancient  city  of  Byzantium,  now 
known  as  Constantinople,  lies  between  the  Black  Sea  and 
the  Sea  of  Marmora,  as  can  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  map 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  Strait  of  Bosporus  washes  its  shores, 


MEDITERRANEAN 


FIG.  1 

and  thus  it  occupies  one  of  the  finest  commercial  sites  in 
Europe. 

It  was  originally  called  "New  Rome"  for  the  reason  that 
when  Constantine  became  emperor  he  changed  the  capital 
of  the  Roman  Empire  to  the  Oriental  city  on  the  Bosporus, 
which,  like  its  predecessor,  was  built  on  seven  hills  between 
two  great  waterways. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  131 

3.  Geological. — Byzantium  possessed  no  good  building 
materials.     Stone  was  scarce,  and  there  was  no  clay  suitable 
for  brickmaking.     Therefore,   the  building  materials  of  the 
capital   of   the    Eastern    Empire   had    to   be    imported    from 
quarries  across  the  Mediterranean. 

4.  Climatic*. — Byzantium  was  a  hotter  city  than  Rome, 
so  that  on  settling  there  the  Romans  changed  their  habits 
and  methods  of  building  to  suit  the  Oriental  conditions  and 
climate. 

5.  Religions. — In   324   A.   D.,   Constantine  established 
Christianity  as  the  religion  of  the  state,  and  this  brought  an 
important  influence  to  bear  on  the  developing  architectural 
style.     When,  in  395  A.  I).,  the  Roman  Empire  was  divided 
into  the  Empire  of  the  East  and  the  Empire  of  the  West,  a 
division  of   the   Church    followed,  owing   to   a  difference  of 
ideas  concerning  ecclesiastical  rules  governing  the  introduc- 
tion of  sculptured  portraits  in  church  architecture,  and  other 
practices.     The  Eastern  Church  disapproved  of  the  use  of  any 
form  of  carved  images.     Painted  figures  in  the  decorations 
were  tolerated,  but  sculptured  ones  were  not.     The  Western 
Church  insisted  on  graven  images  of  the  saints  and  martyrs, 
which     the    Eastern    Church    held    was     idolatrous.       Con- 
sequently, when  the  eastern  emperors  lost  all  power  in  the 
Western  Empire,  the  Eastern  Church  became  an  independent 
establishment. 

(>.  Political  and  Historical. — Constantine's  system  of 
government  was  an  expansion  of  the  despotic  methods  of  the 
Caesars  of  Rome  (see  Roman  Architecture,  Historical 
Influences,  History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament^  Part  1), 
and  the  removal  of  the  capital  from  Rome  to  Byzantium 
enabled  him  to  control  the  valuable  commercial  advantages 
of  the  latter  city.  At  his  death,  however,  rival  emperors 
claimed  the  throne  and  disputes  arose  in  the  Church  through 
parties  siding  with  the  different  claimants,  until  finally, 
in  395  A.  D.,  the  empire  was  divided  into  two  parts.  One 
division,  comprising  Italy  and  the  western  provinces  of  Gaul 
and  Spain,  was  then  known  as  the  Western,  or  Latin,  Empire, 


132  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

under  Emperor  Honorius,  and  the  other,  which  included  the 
Greek  and  Oriental  civilizations  of  Hellas,  Macedonia, 
Thrace,  and  Asia  Minor  (see  map  of  Greece,  History  of 
Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  1)  was  known  as  the 
Eastern,  or  Byzantine,  Empire,  under  Emperor  Arcadius,  a 
brother  of  Honorius. 

7.  Byzantium  was  originally  a  Greek  colony,  and  it 
retained  traces  of  Greek  influence  in  its  art.  Byzantine  archi- 
tecture developed  into  a  distinct  style  after  the  removal  of 
the  capital  from  Rome  to  the  banks  of  the  Bosporus,  and 
this  style  included  not  only  buildings  in  Byzantium  itself, 
but  also  those  erected  in  cities  under  the  influence  of  the 
Eastern  Empire  and  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Church. 

During  the  reign  of  Justinian,  about  the  middle  of  the 
6th  century,  the  Eastern  and  Western  Empires  were  reunited 
under  one  emperor  for  a  short  period,  and  during  this  reunion 
Byzantine  influences  spread  into  Italy  and  Sicily  and  per- 
manently marked  buildings  erected  during  that  period.  The 
city  of  Ravenna  (see  Fig.  25)  grew  in  importance  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  emperor  resided  there  in  preference  to 
Rome,  and  it  was  afterwards  created  a  See,  or  town  in  which 
the  bishop  of  the  Church  resided.  The  creation  of  a  See 
was  a  matter  of  vast  importance  in  the  development  of  a 
town.  Churches  were  built  wherever  a  congregation  or 
parish  required  one,  but  where  a  cathedral  was  erected  the 
town  became  a  See  and  the  seat  of  the  bishop's  jurisdiction. 
The  building  of  the  cathedral  not  only  brought  a  multitude 
of  craftsmen  to  the  town,  but  it  gave  the  community  impor- 
tance politically,  ecclesiastically,  and  commercially.  After 
the  Western  Empire  was  claimed  by  the  Goths,  in  476  A.  D., 
Ravenna  remained  the  residence  of  the  Gothic  kings  and 
rivaled  Rome  in  importance.  From  539  to  572  A.  D.,  Ravenna 
was  the  residence  of  the  governors  appointed  by  the  Byzan- 
tine emperors,  and  the  Byzantine  style  flourished  there  until 
Constantinople  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1453.  Venice  in 
Northern  Italy,  Monreale  in  Sicily,  and  other  cities  in  Greece 
and  Russia  were  especially  influenced  by  the  Byzantine  style. 


§50  ARCPIITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  133 


CHARACTERISTICS 

8.  The  chief  characteristic  of  the  Byzantine  style  centers 
in  the  ne\v  principle  of  design  arising  from  the  development 
of  the  dome  as  a  system  of  roofing  over  the  areas  of  the 
plan.     This  point  should   be  clearly  understood,  as   it   was 
the  dome  in  the  East  that  led   to   the   development   of   the 
Byzantine  style,  and  the  vault  in  the  West  that  gave  rise  to 
the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  styles.     The  change  developed 
was  from  the  original  Roman  forms,  but  was  gradual  and 
progressive,  and  in  the  course  of   two  centuries  Byzantine 
architecture  existed  as  a  style  by  itself. 

Generally  speaking,  a  Byzantine  building  consisted  of  a 
brick  construction  no  more  architectural  in  its  details  than 
the  concrete  constructions  of  the  Romans.  The  walls  were 
sheathed  with  rich  marbles  or  bricks,  and  the  domes  were 
decorated  with  brilliantly  colored  glass  mosaics  against  a 
golden  ground.  The  heart  of  the  wall  was  occasionally 
built  of  concrete,  as  in  the  Roman  method,  and  the  bricks 
used  simply  as  a  surface  treatment.  The  bricks,  however, 
were  not  laid  in  regular  courses  as  in  the  Roman  and  modern 
methods,  but  were  set  in  geometrical  patterns  to  form  a  fret- 
work, chevron,  herring-bone,  or  other  design  that  added 
variety  to  the  appearance. 

The  dome,  however,  is  the  characteristic  detail  of  the  style. 
At  Rome,  domes  had  been  constructed  only  over  circular 
and  polygonal  buildings,  but  in  Byzantine  work  are  found 
square  apartments  that  are  successfully  domed  by  bringing 
the  angles  together  to  form  a  pendeiitive. 

9.  In  Fig.  2  is  shown  a  diagram  of  the  Byzantine  system 
of  construction,  abed  being  the  rectangular  plan  that  is  to 
be  covered  by  a  circular  dome.     Four  heavy  masonry  piers 
a  e,  bf,cg,  and  dh  are  constructed  at  the  four  angles  of  the 
plan,  the  spaces  between  them  being  spanned  by  four  arches, 
as  ckf,  f  I g,  etc.     Thus  far  the  construction  does  not  differ 
widely  from  that  practiced  by  the  Roman  architects;  but  in 
order  to  dome  the  enclosed  area,  the  angles  were  also  arched 


134 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


over  until,  at  the  crowns  of  the  first  arches,  the  plan  became 
circular,  as  at  k  I  m  n.     The  inside  of  the  spherical  triangles 
thus  formed  at  enk,  f  k  I,  etc.  are  called  pcndentives,  and  are 
p  as  characteristic  of  the  Byzan- 

f,'-'  ^  tine  style  as  is  the  dome  itself. 

/'  \          Over    this    circular    opening 

k  I  m  n,  the  dome  op  q  was 
constructed,  resting  directly  on 
the  pendentives  in  the  earliest 
structures,  but  in  the  more 
advanced  buildings  raised  on 
a  cylindrical  superstructure, 
as  n  o. 


FIG.  2 


10.  Domes  and  semidomes 
covered  all  spaces,  and  were 
built  of  light,  porous  stones, 
such  as  pumice.  Some  domes 
were  constructed  of  terra  cotta 
or  light  pottery,  thus  charac- 
terizing the  architecture  by  the 
introduction  of  brick  and  other 
clay  compositions.  The  bricks  were  large  and  flat  and  were 
laid  up  in  a  system  derived  not  from  Rome  but  from  Asia. 
Small  domes  were  grouped  around  the  larger  ones,  giving  a 
picturesque  effect,  and  no  attempt  was  made  to  disguise  these 
forms  externally.  One  can  readily  see  from  the  exterior  of 
a  building  exactly  what  the  interior  arrangement  presents 
(see  Figs.  3  and  5).  Here,  then,  is  a  contrast  to  the  Roman 
system,  although  the  style  was  based  on  a  similar  principle. 
The  columns  and  entablatures  could  be  stripped  from  the 
Roman  buildings  without  injuring  their  construction,  but  if 
the  Byzantine  buildings  were  stripped  of  their  decorative 
features,  exterior  vaults,  and  domes,  the  construction  itself 
would  be  destroyed. 

The  classic  orders  were  dispensed  with.  New  capitals 
developed  that  still  bore  some  relation  to  Roman  prototypes, 
but  were  Oriental  in  character  (see  Fig.  11). 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  135 

11.  The  procedure  for  the  erection  of  a  building  was  a 
most  simple  one.  The  plan  being  determined  on,  the  first 
consideration  was  to  collect  the  marble  shafts  that  were  to 
support  the  interior  walls  and  galleries.  It  was  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  quarries  from  which  these  shafts  were  to 
be  obtained  be  thoroughly  understood  before  the  foundations 
were  commenced,  for  on  the  length  that  these  columns  could 
be  quarried  depended  the  height  of  the  building.  The  details 
of  the  columns  therefore  became  one  of  the  first  consider- 
ations, and  when  that  was  settled,  the  body  of  the  structure 
could  be  proceeded  with.  The  shell  representing  the  outer 
and  inner  faces  of  the  wall  of  the  building  was  built  of 
narrow  bricks  carefully  laid  in  mortar,  and  when  thoroughly 
dry  this  shell  was  filled  in  with  concrete  and  sheathed  with 
marble.  The  great  piers  that  were  to  support  the  penden- 
tives  under  the  domes  were  next  constructed;  then  the  domes 
were  turned  over  the  tops  and  their  soffits  overlaid  with 
mosaic. 

The  problem  was  essentially  one  of  roofing.  The  plan 
was  laid  to  suit  the  purposes  involved.  A  fireproof  roof  of 
stone  must  then  be  constructed  to  render  the  building 
permanent.  This  heavy  roof  had  to  be  supported  and 
demanded  strong  columns  and  heavy  piers  for  that  purpose. 
Decoration  formed  no  part  of  this  fundamental  architectural 
problem.  These  essentials  had  to  be  met  before  any  con- 
sideration of  ornament  could  be  entered  into.  When  form 
of  plan,  columns,  and  roof  were  determined,  however,  the 
question  of  decorative  detail  asserted  itself.  The  support- 
ing columns  could  be  made  ornate  by  sculptured  capitals  and 
polished  shafts.  The  flat  side  walls  could  be  encrusted  with 
costly  and  elaborate  marbles,  and  the  hollow  soffits  of  the 
domes  could  be  overlaid  with  mosaic. 


136  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


EXAMPLES 

12.  Byzantine  architectural  examples  consist  mostly  of 
churches  and  baptisteries.     A  few  of  the  former  follow  the 
basilican  style,  but  the  majority  are  based  on  the  circular 
and  polygonal  plans  of  the  Roman  and  early  Christian  tombs. 

13.  Church  of  Hagia  Sophia. — The   great  church  of 
Hagia    Sophia,    Fig.    3,    built    by    Emperor    Justinian  in 
532  A.  D.,  is  the  earliest  monument  purely   Byzantine  in 
style  and  one  of  the  really  great  buildings  of  the  world.  A 
peculiarity  of  this  monument  and  its  style  is  the  fact  that  it 
presents  so  perfect  an  example  of  an  original  style  with  so 
little  transition  toward  that  style. 

The  emperor  declared  that  he  would  erect  a  church,  "That 
should  be  the  grandest  monument  ever  built  by  man,"  and 
the  governors  of  even  the  most  distant  provinces  of  the 
empire  were  ordered  to  ransack  all  the  ancient  Roman 
buildings  for  sculptures,  precious  marbles,  and  works  of  art, 
to  be  used  in  this  edifice.  Eight  columns  of  pure  white 
marble  were  brought  from  Palmyra,  and  eight  more  of  deep- 
green  marble  were  stripped  from  the  temple  of  Diana,  at 
Ephesus,  and  shiploads  of  costly  relics  were  brought  from 
all  sections  of  the  empire  to  become  a  part  of  this  great 
structure. 

14.  The  plan  and  construction  of  this  edifice  is  no  less 
remarkable    than   the    scale    and    treatment    of   its   interior 
decoration  (Figs.  4  and  5),  and  it  stands  to  Byzantine  archi- 
tecture as  the  Parthenon  stood  to  the  Greek  and  the  Pan- 
theon to  the   Roman.     Unfortunately,   this   church   is   now 
converted  into  a  Mohammedan  mosque,  and  the  severity  of 
the    Moslem    religion    required    that   its    beautiful    interior 
decorations  should  be  covered  from  sight  by  repeated  appli- 
cations of  whitewash  over  which  Arabic  inscriptions  were 
inscribed. 

The  plan  of  the  church  of  Hagia  Sophia,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  4,  was  an  adaptation  of  the  Basilica  of  Maxentius 
( see  Fig.  80,  History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  1 ) ,  and 


KA6IA  SOPHIA 

CONSTANTINOPLE. 


1  i      I  i     ,  -ill 

I  i      i  i    Gauer/es  orer   '  I      i  i 

ill  I  i      i  i 


OROUND     PLAN 

A?  Ga//enes 


FIG.  4 


138 


140  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

consists  of  a  central  square  107  feet  on  each  side,  at  the 
corners  of  which  are  four  massive  piers  25  feet  in  thickness. 
These  piers  are  connected  above  by  semicircular  arches 
supporting  a  dome  107  feet  in  diameter,  as  shown  in  the 
interior  view,  Fig.  5.  It  will  be  well  to  compare  the  con- 
struction here  illustrated  with  the  diagram  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
East  and  west  of  this  dome  are  great  apses  crowned  with 
semidomes,  out  of  which  are  further  extensions  also  domed 
over.  An  oval-shaped  nave  250  ft.  X  107  ft.  is  thus  estab- 
lished, around  which  aisles  50  feet  wide  are  constructed, 
thus  approximately  reducing  the  total  structure  to  a  square. 
The  square  central  space  is  crowned  179  feet  above  the  floor 
with  a  dome  that  in  itself  is  over  47  feet  in  height,  being 
less  than  half  a  sphere.  The  semidomes  over  the  semi- 
circular extensions  to  the  nave  are  constructed  so  that  their 
crown  strikes  the  base  of  the  main  dome  and  acts  as  a  brace 
or  buttress  against  it,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4  (a). 

15.  Church    of    St.    Vitale. — As    has    already    been 
mentioned,  the  city  of  Ravenna  was  greatly  influenced  by 
the  Byzantine  style,  and  here  is  located  the  church  of  St. 
Vitale,  the  plan  and  section  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  6  and  the 
interior  in  Fig.  7.      The  character  of  the  Byzantine  interior 
treatment  can  be  better  studied  here,  as  no  infidel  hand  has 
whitewashed  it  over.     Rich  mosaics  and  rare  marbles  cover 
every  available  wall  space  from  the  tile  mosaic  floor  to  the 
soffit  of  the  hemispherical  dome.     The  interior  is  lighted 
through  eight  mullioned  windows  that  pierce  the  drum  of 
the  dome.     The  drum  is  supported  on  eight  arches;  each  of 
which  is  closed  on  the  outside  by   a  semidome  upheld  by 
two  columns.     The  capitals  of  these  columns  are  marvelous 
products  of  the  carvers'   skill.     [See    Fig.   12   (£).]     This 
edifice  was  modeled  after  the   temple  of  Minerva  Medica, 
at  Rome,  and  is  octagonal  in  plan,  the  inner  octagon  being 
50  feet  in  diameter  and  the  outer  one  110  feet. 

16.  Church    of    St.   Mark. — In    Fig.   8    is   shown   the 
church  of  St.  Mark,  at  Venice.     This  structure  was  erected 
at   the    end   of   the    llth   century,    and   shows   remarkable 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  141 


(ft) 

FIG.  6 


144  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

Byzantine  characteristics  that  were  undoubtedly  brought  to 
Venice  through  geographical  influences,  as  this  city  was  one 
of  the  connecting  links  in  the  commerce  between  Byzantium 
and  Western  Europe. 

The  plan  of  St.  Mark's,  shown  in  Fig.  9  (b),  presents  a 
Greek  cross  with  four  equal  arms,  over  one  of  which  and 
over  the  intersection  are  turned  domes  32  feet  in  diameter, 
whereas  a  smaller  dome  exists  over  three  of  the  arms.  The 
plan  also  shows  that  the  great  piers  supporting  the  central 
domes  are  pierced  by  archways  in  both  directions,  sub- 
dividing them  into  four  smaller  piers  on  the  ground  plan. 
On  the  western  arm  of  the  crucial  plan,  an  arcade  forms  a 
vestibule  around  three  sides,  making  this  portion  of  the  plan 
nearly  square. 

In  the  section  shown  in  Fig.  9  (a)  a  low  masonry  dome 
over  the  center  and  side  arms  may  be  seen,  together  with  the 
false  and  greatly  elevated  wooden  domes  erected  to  serve  as 
the  roof  and  at  the  same  time  give  exterior  effect.  These 
wooden  domes  are  of  later  date  than  the  original  construction. 

The  interior  of  St.  Mark's,  Fig.  10,  is  richly  veneered  with 
colored  marble  and  mosaic.  The  latter  is  used  almost 
exclusively  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  walls  and  the  interior 
of  the  domes.  This  mosaic  presents  illustrations  depicting 
scenes  from  the  lives  of  the  saints,  portraits  of  the  martyrs, 
and  scriptural  subjects,  all  set  off  against  an  elaborate  back- 
ground of  gold.  The  interior  of  St.  Marks  appears  richer 
than  St.  Sophia,  but  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  all  the  elabo- 
rate mosaics  and  decorations  of  the  latter  were  destroyed  or 
painted  over  when  the  Mohammedans  secured  possession 
of  the  city. 

17.  Other  Byzantine  Structures. — In  Greece  there 
are  many  small  but  beautifully  executed  buildings  in  the 
Byzantine  style,  and  the  cathedrals  of  Moscow,  Keif,  and 
Novgorod,  in  Russia,  are  developments  along  these  same 
lines. 


LI  ILL      JU 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  147 


j   STUDY 


PLANS 

18.  The  characteristic  Byzantine  plan  presents  a  square 
central  space  covered  with  a  dome  supported  on  pendentives, 
as  in  Figs.  2,  4,  9,  and  10,  and  the  purely  structural  character 
of  the  pendentives  is  clearly  shown  in  Fig.  38.     On  each  of 
the  four  sides  of  the  central  space  arms  extend,  thus  forming 
a  Greek  cross.     The  whole  is  enclosed  by  walls  supporting 
the  galleries,  thus   making   the   plan   nearly  square.     Com- 
pared with  the  early  Christian  basilica,  it  is  found  that  the 
Byzantine  church  tends  toward  a  condensed  plan  and  effect- 
ive interior  height,  the  crowning  feature  being  the  central 
dome,    around    which    smaller    domes,   or    semidomes,    are 
grouped.     The  early  Christian  basilicas  presented  a  long  and 
narrow  plan,  by  which  an  effective  perspective  of  interior 
columns  was  obtained,  together  with  a  dominating  influence 
of  horizontal  lines. 

WALLS 

19.  The  walls  consisted  of  an  exterior  and  interior  shell 
filled  in  with  concrete.     The  interior  shell  was  elaborately 
decorated  with  marble  and  mosaic,  and  occasionally  a  deco- 
rative effect  was  attained  by  laying  the  brick  of  the  enclo- 
sing shells  in  chevron,  herring  bone,  and  other  ornamental 
patterns. 

ROOFS 

20.  The  main  portions  of  the  buildings  were  covered  by 
a  series  of  domes,  usually  appearing  externally  in  their  actual 
form.     Sometimes,  the  domes  were  built  of  pottery  or  terra 
cotta,  this  light  material  causing  little  thrust  against  the  walls. 
The  early  domes  were  lower  than  a  hemisphere,  Fig.  6,  but 
later  they  were  raised  on  a  drum,  which  was  pierced  with  a 
series  of  windows,  Fig.  7. 


148  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


COLUMNS 

21.  As  in  the  early  Christian  structures,  the  Byzantine 
columns    were    first    taken    from    ancient    buildings.     The 
supply  in  the  East,  however,  was  limited,  and  it  soon  became 
exhausted.     Thus,  the  necessity  of  designing  new  columns 
presented  itself  more  quickly  than  it  did  in  the  West.     The 
shafts  were  of  rich  marbles  turned  from  a  single  piece  and 
polished  to  bring  out  the  veinings.     The  capitals  originally 
in  design  show  the  influence  of  the  Roman  orders  in  many 
cases,  Fig.  11.  

OPENINGS 

22.  Semicircular  window  heads  are  general  throughout 
the  Byzantine   style,  but  segmental  arches  and  horseshoe 
openings  are  occasionally  seen. 

The  windows  are  small  and  grouped,  rather  than  scattered. 
The  extensive  application  of  mosaic  for  decorative  effects  on 
the  broad  wall  spaces,  dome  soffits,  and  pendentives,  fulfil  the 
place  occupied  by  stained  glass  in  the  Gothic  style.  Large 
windows  were  not  practical  in  the  Byzantine  churches.  The 
climate,  too,  had  much  influence  on  this,  as  it  was  warm  and 
sunny,  necessitating  numerous  small  openings  that  would 
tend  to  keep  out  the  heat  and  at  the  same  time  give  the 
necessary  light.  Delicate  carving  and  stained-glass  effects 
were  therefore  impractical,  as  there  was  not  sufficient  light 
to  set  off  the  former  nor  sufficient  window  space  to  display 
the  latter.  _____ 

MOLDINGS 

23.  The    moldings    were    unimportant    and   were   used 
simply  to  separate  spaces  of  elaborate  mosaic  work  with- 
out any  attempt  to  develop  pleasing  forms  of  contour,  or 
outline.      The    few   moldings   that   were  used  were  based 
on  classic  models,  but  the  classic  moldings  were  not  fol- 
lowed \vith  any  degree  of  fidelity.    There  was  no  set  system 
of  moldings  as  in  the  classic  or  later  Gothic  styles. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  149 

ORNAMENT 

24.  In  the  East,  around  the  city  of  Byzantium,  architec- 
ture was   influenced  by  the  art  of  Assyria  and   Persia.     In 
fact,    its   entire   character  became   tinged   with   an   Oriental 
spirit,  and  this  spirit  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  centuries 
did  much  to  develop  a  new  and  entirely  different  style  of  art 
and  architecture,  known  as  Byzantine. 

The  scheme  of  ornamentation  was  most  elaborate.  The 
richest  marbles  that  could  be  procured  were  used  for  the 
lower  portions  of  the  walls,  and  the  natural  veinings  were 
arranged  so  as  to  form  geometrical  patterns.  Glass — mosaic, 
and  symbolic  figures  representing  groups  of  saints  and  signs 
of  the  Evangelists  were  inlaid  against  a  golden  ground.  The 
small  amount  of  carving  used  was  in  low  relief,  and  the 
effect  was  frequently  produced  by  sinking  portions  of  sur- 
faces. The  acanthus  leaf  was  cut  in  sharp  relief,  with  the 
holes  between  the  lobes  deeply  drilled.  The  style  of  the 
acanthus  carving  was  more  Greek  than  Roman. 

One  of  the  strongest  characteristics  of  Byzantine  orna- 
ment, compared  with  classic  ornament,  is  that  the  design 
seems  to  be  cut  into  the  surface  instead  of  being  applied  to 
it,  the  surface  always  remaining  flat  and  the  pattern  so  cut 
as  not  to  break  its  outline.  There  is  a  characteristic  Grecian 
influence  pervading  all  Byzantine  ornamentation,  which  would 
naturally  be  the  case,  as  Byzantium  was  originally  a  Greek  city. 

25.  The  capital  shown  in  Fig.  11  (a)  is  from  one  of  the 
columns  in  the  first  tier  of  arches  in  the  church  of  Hagia 
Sophia,  at  Constantinople.     The  scrolls  in  the  upper  part  of 
this    column    undoubtedly   have    their    origin    in    the    Ionic 
order,  and,  though  the  entire  capital  is  decorated  with  the 
conventionalized  acanthus   leaf,   it   is   widely  different  from 
any  Roman  model.     Here  the  block  of  the  capital  is  sound 
and  heavy,  and  at  its  bottom  is  a  foliated  ring  that  seems  to 
bind  it  together,  while  the  carved  leafwork  grows  out  of  the 
top  of  the  column  and  enters  materially  into  the  construction 
of  the  capital  itself. 


&mmwm 


9 


m  ff  U 

wMrmwvfflm/maff 


Fio.  ll 


150 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  151 

In  another  Byzantine  capital,  shown  in  (b] ,  the  place 
usually  occupied  by  the  abacus  is  filled  by  a  heavy  semi- 
pyramidal  form  on  which  the  ornament  seems  to  be  applied 
as  a  surface  decoration  more  than  a  component  part  of  the 
construction. 

In  (r),  a  capital  from  St.  Mark's  Church,  at  Venice,  the 
volutes  at  the  top  of  the  column,  the  shape  of  the  capital  as 
it  swells  out  to  the  abacus,  and  the  general  character  of  the 
details  suggests  the  Roman  Corinthian  order. 

In  (d)  is  shown  another  example  of  Byzantine  capital, 
from  Italy,  that  is  even  more  freed  from  Roman  influence 
than  that  of  the  previous  example.  The  long,  elliptical 
curves  formed  by  the  leaves,  the  sharp-pointed  lobes,  and 
the  deep  indentations  are  all  indicative  of  its  Byzantine 
origin. 

2(>.  The  running  ornament  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  11  (<?). 
The  leaf  form  here  is  thoroughly  conventional,  and,  though 
tending  slightly  toward  a  scroll,  is  governed  by  a  continuous 
wavy  line,  from  opposite  sides  of  which  the  leaf  forms 
branch. 

In  (/)  is  shown  an  example  of  geometrically  arranged 
running  ornament  from  the  church  of  Hagia  Sophia.  The 
main  geometrical  forms,  as  will  be  observed,  are  circles. 
These  circles,  however,  are  not  formed  complete  in  them- 
selves, but  result  from  the  crossing  and  intersection  of  two 
wavy  lines  precisely  the  same  in  general  character  as  the 
wavy  line  that  forms  the  governing  element  in  (e).  In  (/), 
however,  instead  of  branching  foliage  from  opposite  sides 
of  the  lines,  geometrical  figures  are  arranged  within,  and 
foliated  forms  with  the  cross  of  St.  George  are  used  to 
form  prominent  details  of  the  design. 

27.  The  capital  shown  in  Fig.  12  (a)  is  from  the  church 
of  St.  Vitale,  Fig.  7,  at  Ravenna.  The  peculiar-looking 
birds  on  the  upper  part,  as  well  as  the  sharply  indented 
foliage,  are  characteristic  of  this  style,  as  is  also  the 
geometrical  pattern  and  the  wandering-vine  border  line, 
throwing  off  its  leaves  on  alternate  sides. 


*  J* 


(fr) 

t'lG. 


152 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  153 

That  the  capital  of  the  column  is  cut  in  full  relief  is  clearly 
shown,  as  the  light  shines  through  the  screen  work  into  the 
stone  interior.  The  dark  portions  of  the  capital  were  orig- 
inally gilded,  and  must  certainly  have  presented  a  most 
remarkable  effect. 

Over  the  balcony  above  the  altar  in  Fig.  7  are  three  arches 
supported  on  columns,  details  of  which  are  shown  in 
Fig.  12  (/;).  The  walls,  soffits,  and  spandrels  of  the  arches 
are  laid  in  mosaic. 

28.  In  giving  examples  of  Byzantine  ornament,  nothing 
could  be  more  characteristic  than  the  stone  panels  herewith 
illustrated.     The  style  of  the  ornament  itself,  the  character 
of  the  carving,  and  the  development  of  the  geometrical  pat- 
tern are  all  details  that  are  shown  here  in  a  most  character- 
istic Byzantine  form. 

29.  The   pierced   screen   shown  in   Fig.    13  (a)   is   from 
Ravenna,  and  illustrates  the  geometrical  pattern  based   on 
an   arrangement  of  circles,   in  which  is   carved   the   typical 
Byzantine  leaf.     The  cross  outlined  in  the  center  was  empha- 
sized in  the  original  by   a  plating  of  gold,  and  the  spaces 
around  the  foliage  were  filled  with  birds,  the  peculiar  model- 
ing and  conventional  outline  of  which  are  characteristic  of 
the   Byzantine   style.      Another   characteristic   of   the   style, 
shown  clearly  in  this  illustration,  is  the  sharp,  angular  cut- 
ting of  the  leaves,  the  deep  circular  and  elliptical  openings 
between  the  lobes  of  two  adjacent  leaves,  and  the  tendency 
of  the  whole  panel  to  appear  in  high  relief  on  a  dark  ground 
rather  than  to  be  pierced  through  entirely. 

In  (c)  is  shown  another  screen  of  the  same  character.  In 
this  example,  the  interlaced  bands  that  form  the  geometrical 
outline  of  the  foliated  ornament  were  originally  gilded,  and 
the  leaf  forms  carved  between  them  are  similar  to  those  in  («). 

30.  The  screen  shown  in  Fig.  13  (6)  is  from  St.  Mark's, 
at  Venice,   and  its  design  is  based  on  identically  the  same 
motifs  as  the  screens  that  have  already  been  studied.     The 
carving,  however,  though  in  high  relief,  does  not  pierce  the 
screen,  and  the  border  of  the  panel,  as  well  as  the  treatment 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  155 

of  the  foliage  within  the  panel,  shows  a  highly  developed 
Byzantine  feeling.  However,  the  influence  of  its  proximity 
to  Rome  on  the  treatment  of  the  scroll  forms  is  apparent. 
In  the  central  part  of  the  panel  the  running  vine,  with  its 
leaves  branching  from  each  side  is  missing,  but  there  is  a 
partly  controlled  tendency  to  grow  one  scroll  out  of  another 
— a  tendency  that  is  so  well  kept  in  submission  that  it  does 
not  materially  affect  the  delicacy  of  the  design. 

31.  In  the  same  church  is  found  a  panel,  Fig.  14  (a),  the 
rounded  forms  of  which  are  not  often  found  in  this   style. 
The    severe    conventionalism    of    the    foliage    treatment    is 
characteristic,  however,  as  is  also  the  preservation  of  balance 
and   symmetry.     On   one   side,  the  vine  runs  off  the  panel 
both  at  the  top  and  the  edge,  and  on  the  other  side,  it  runs 
off  the  panel  at  the  top  only.     One  of  the  two  central  leaves 
extends  over  the  molding  of  the  panel  frame;  the  other  is 
carved  entirely  within  it. 

32.  Fig.   14   (b),  however,  shows  a  trend  in  a  different 
direction.     Here  the  openings  in  the  screen  are  larger,  the 
exterior  portion  of  it  being  outlined  with  a  design  undoubt- 
edly  derived    from    the   Greek   fret,    while   in   the   center   a 
large  Latin  cross  divides  the  panel  into  four  smaller  rect- 
angles.    It  will  be  well  to  observe  the  running  foliage  around 
this  panel,  and   its   branching   leaves   and   fruit,  alternately 
from  opposite  sides,  and  to  note  the  difference  between  this 
style  of  treating  foliage  and  that  of  the  Roman  and  Greek 
artists,  where  continuous  foliage  was  accomplished  by  grow- 
ing one  spray,  or  stem,  out  of  a  calyx,  or  cup,  from  which  a 
scroll  emanated. 

33.  In  Fig.  12  (r)  is  shown  a  well  at  Venice,  the  details 
of  which   illustrate  clearly   the   strong,  bold,  outline   effect 
characteristic  of  Byzantine   carving.     The  guilloche  border 
around  the  top  and  the  leaves  patterned  after  inverted  anthe- 
mions  are  suggestive  of  classic  origin,  but  are  treated  with 
such  strong  Byzantine  effect  that  the  classic  taint  is  fairly 
obliterated. 


156  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


BYZANTINE   DECORATION 


(a) 


id) 


161-1  L  T  100,  303    §  50 


Fitt. 


BYZANTINE  DECORATION 


161-1  LT  100,  303    §  50 


FIG.  16 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  157 

34.  Color  in  Byzantine  ornament  was  a  very  important 
factor,  as  the  walls  of  the  churches  were  richly  overlaid  with 
mosaics  and   frescoes   in  which   the  color  theme  was  most 
magnificent.     Gold   was   largely  used   for  backgrounds  and 
took  the  place  of  yellow,  while  the  other  two  primaries,  red 
and  blue,  formed  a  part  of  the  theme. 

The  gold-and-black  borders  shown  in  Fig.  15  (a),  (b), 
and  (r)  are  characteristically  Byzantine  both  in  their  geo- 
metrical construction  and  color  contrasts.  The  three-leaved 
sprig  conventionally  and  symmetrically  introduced  with  the 
circle  is  a  very  simple  combination  that  has  been  endlessly 
varied  in  different  designs.  It  will  be  well  to  study  borders 
(a)  and  (b)  carefully  and  to  observe  how  similar  they  at 
first  appear,  and  yet  on  careful  scrutiny  how  materially  they 
differ.  The  border  at  (c]  being  absolutely  symmetrical,  can 
be  used  to  advantage  both  in  a  vertical  and  in  a  horizontal 
position.  These  interlacing  forms,  based  on  tangent  and 
intersecting  circles,  formed  an  important  element  in  the 
elaborate  illuminated  manuscript  designs  of  this  period. 

In  (d)  is  shown  a  wall  decoration  in  gold  against  a  buff 
ground.  The  design  is  worked  out  in  the  flat  with  extreme 
conventionality,  still  introducing  the  circle  as  the  unit  of 
repetition.  The  decoration  at  (e)  is  a  late  example  in  which 
the  hexagon  is  used  as  the  unit  of  repetition. 

35.  Fig.  16  (c)  shows  an  example  of  ceiling  decoration 
from    the    church    of    St.    George,    at    Thessalonica.      The 
peculiar  outline  of  the  device  adjacent  to  the  four  sides  of 
the  interior  rectangle  is  suggestive  of  Arabian  origin,  and  is 
exceedingly  ingenious  in  its  method  of  preserving  symmetry 
and  preventing  awkward  repetition. 

In  (/>)  is  shown  an  example  of  wall  decoration  from  the 
same  edifice.  The  effect  is  very  rich,  and  the  arrangement 
of  the  rectangles  and  smaller  circles  shows  a  knowledge  of 
surface  division  that  is  well  carried  into  effect.  The  color- 
ing is  Byzantine,  and  worthy  of  careful  study.  Though 
brilliant,  it  is  never  glaring;  the  hues  are  selected  to  harmo- 
nize and  to  produce  a  soft  bloom  effect  at  a  distance. 


158  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


RISE  OF  THE   SARACENS 

(622  A.  D.  TO  755  A.  D.) 

36.  It  will  now  be  necessary  to  turn  aside  for  a  moment 
to  consider  a  remarkable  period  in  history  when  an  Oriental 
nation    invaded    Europe    and   established    its    customs    and 
religion    where    another    race    and    another   faith   had    pre- 
viously existed  for  several  centuries. 

Mohammed,  a  rich  merchant  much  respected  in  Arabia, 
was  the  founder  of  this  new  religion.  When  about  40  years 
of  age  he  announced  that  he  had  been  chosen  by  God  to 
reform  the  faith  and  practices  of  the  Arabian  nation.  He 
acknowledged  both  the  Jewish  and  Christian  beliefs  as  sent 
from  God,  but  claimed  that  he  had  received  later  and  more 
complete  inspirations  from  divine  sources,  for  the  benefit  of 
his  own  people.  Thus,  he  gave  his  countrymen  a  religion 
that  united  the  scattered  Arab  tribes  into  one  homogeneous 
nation.  His  native  town  of  Mecca,  however,  soon  denounced 
him  as  an  imposter,  and  he  and  his  followers  were  obliged 
to  flee  for  safety  on  July  15,  622  A.  D.  This  flight,  termed 
"Hegira,"  is  the  beginning  of  the  Mohammedan  era  from 
which  all  their  dates  are  reckoned. 

Mohammed  took  refuge  at  Medina,  where  he  made  a 
number  of  converts.  With  increase  of  followers  the  relig- 
ious reformer  became  a  red-handed  soldier,  and  at  the  end  of 
10  years,  conversion  to  Mohammedanism  had  been  forced 
on  the  whole  Arabian  peninsula.  As  the  Arabs  were 
about  to  force  this  belief  on  other  nations,  Mohammed  died, 
in  632  A.  D.  His  successors,  however,  endeavored  to  carry 
out  the  campaign,  and  began  a  long  series  of  wars  and 
invasions,  until  Mohammedanism  was  spread  over  a  large 
part  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Southern  Europe. 

37.  The  Arabs,  or  Saracens,  as  they  were  called,  met 
with  comparatively  little  resistance  in  Oriental  districts,  as 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  159 

those  countries  were  a  part  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  which 
Christianity  and  Roman  law  had  taken  little  hold.  Thus, 
the  great  Eastern  Empire  was  shorn  of  all  its  possessions, 
and  in  the  far  East,  all  the  lands  from  Persia  to  India  were 
added  to  the  Moslem  Empire. 

In  the  West,  however,  the  Saracens  met  with  stout  resist- 
ance. Constantinople  was  besieged  for  8  years  without 
result;  and  40  years  later  a  similar  siege  met  with  failure. 
In  Northern  Africa,  too,  there  was  great  resistance,  but 
finally  the  wh~»le  Northern  Coast  was  subdued,  and  in 
710  A.  D.  the  Ivfohammedans  crossed  from  Africa  into  Spain 
and  established  themselves  at  Gibraltar.  They  then  over- 
ran the  whole  peninsula  and  established  a  kingdom  that  lasted 
700  years.  They  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  entered  Southern 
France  with  the  intention  of  adding  that  country,  and  pos- 
sibly all  Europe  to  their  empire,  but  in  this  they  were  unsuc- 
cessful. In  732  A.  D.,  near  Tours,  France,  the  invaders  were 
met  by  a  powerful  Christian  army  under  Charles  Martel,  and 
here  a  fierce  battle  raged  for  7  days.  The  Saracens  \vere 
hopelessly  defeated,  and  the  progress  of  Mohammedan  arms 
in  Europe  was  forever  checked.  Had  this  not  been  accom- 
plished the  entire  history  of  the  world  might  have  been 
changed.  To  Charles  Martel  then  we  owe  the  preservation 
of  Europe  for  the  Christian  kingdoms  and  to  the  descend- 
ants of  Charles  Martel  we  largely  owe  the  permanent  estab- 
lishment of  the  Church  universal. 

This  great  Saracenic  Empire,  extending  from  India  to 
Spain,  was  for  a  short  time  under  the  rule  of  a  single 
emperor,  or  caliph. 

38.  The  influence  of  this  Saracenic  invasion  was  in 
reality  beneficial.  During  the  dark,  feudal  ages,  when  all 
Europe  was  sunk  in  the  grossest  ignorance,  the  Oriental 
Saracens  were  actively  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  science 
and  art.  The  libraries  and  schools  at  Cordova,  in  Spain, 
and  at  Bagdad,  in  Persia,  gave  to  Europe  all  that  was 
original,  during  the  middle  ages,  of  medicine,  mathematics, 
and  physics. 


160  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

These  people  also  developed  an  architecture  of  their  own 
that  is  rich  in  ornament  and  decorative  effect.  This  will 
not  be  considered,  however,  until  the  development  of  the 
medieval  styles  is  finished. 


REVIEW    EXERCISES 

1.  What  was  comprised  in  the  Byzantine  Empire? 

2.  What  religious  influences  affected  the  Byzantine  style? 

3.  WThen  did  the  Byzantine  Empire  come  into  existence? 

4.  What  are  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  Byzantine  style r 

5.  Of   what    character   of    buildings    do    the    Byzantine  examples 
consist? 

6.  (a)  What  is  the   principal    structure    in    the    Byzantine    style? 
(£)  When  was  it  built? 

7.  In  what  way  did  the  Byzantine  system  of  building  walls  differ 
from  the  Roman  system? 

8.  What  influences  affected  the  development  of  Byzantine  ornament? 

9.  Make  a  drawing  in  pen  and  ink  of  a  Byzantine  capital. 

10.  Make  a  drawing    in    color  of    Byzantine    running   ornament. 
Drawings  should  be  large  enough  to  show  details  clearly  and  must  be 
executed  on  sheets  of  white  paper  9  inches  by  12  inches. 

11.  (a)  Who  were  the  Saracens?     (6)  In  what  way  did  they  affect 
the  history  of  Europe?     (c)  During  what  period  did  they  exercise  the 
greatest  influence? 


8r>0  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  161 


ROMANESQUE   ARCHITECTURE 

(800  A.  D.  TO  1200  A.  D.) 


INFLUENCES 

39.  Geographical. — While  the  Byzantine  art  was  set- 
tling itself  into  a  fixed  style  in  Eastern  Europe  the  Roman- 
esque   was    developing    in    the    West.     As    the    different 
countries  of  Europe  began  to  assume  character  under  indi- 
vidual   rulers,    the    architecture    that    developed    in    those 
countries  possessed  peculiarities  that  were  purely  geograph- 
ical  in   character.     The    Romanesque   architecture   of    Italy 
was  greatly  influenced  by  Byzantine  art,  and  in  many  cases 
(as    at   Venice   and   Ravenna)    it   is   difficult  to  distinguish 
between   the    Romanesque   and   the   Byzantine.     Spain   and 
France  being  far  to  the  west,  however,  the  style  was  influ- 
enced less  by  Oriental  art,  and  in  England,  which  is  sepa- 
rated entirely  from  the  mainland,  it  developed  quickly  into 
an  entirely  new  style  founded  on  the  old  architecture  of  the 
Romans  but  developed  without  any  foreign  influence. 

40.  Geological. — Although     Romanesque    architecture 
pervaded  all  of  Western  Europe  from  the  fall  of  Rome  to 
the  end  of  the  12th  century,  one  of  the  strongest  character- 
istics  of  the   style   in   general  is   the  use   of  materials  that 
marked  its  individuality  in  each  particular  country. 

41.  Climatic. — The    style    of  building   that   would   be 
suitable  in  sunny  Spain  would  be  utterly  unsuitable  in  the 
foggy   climate    of    England,    and,    therefore,   owing    to    the 
immense  territory  throughout  which  this  style  developed,  a 
considerable   variation   of   detail   is  found,   due   to   climatic 
conditions. 

42.  Religious. — Were    it    not    for    the    civilizing    and 
educating  influence  of  the  Church,  Romanesque  architecture 

I  L  T  303—12 


162  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

would  not  have  possessed  the  unity  of  feeling  necessary  for 
the  establishment  of  one  style  throughout  Europe.  The 
differences  in  climate,  materials,  and  geographical  positions 
would  naturally  have  produced  a  variety  of  styles  if  there 
had  not  pervaded  throughout  the  entire  country  one  general 
religious  motive  that  prescribed  certain  details  of  manners 
and  customs  uniform  throughout  the  Christian  world.  The 
erection  of  a  church  was  often  the  foundation  of  a  city. 
Monasteries  grew  to  great  power  until  they  practically  con- 
trolled the  local  civil  governments.  Science,  literature,  art, 
and  general  intellectuality  were  not  considered  to  be  of  any 
importance  to  any  except  the  religious  orders  until  after  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century.  Students  in  the  monasteries 
became  designers  of  great  cathedrals,  and  the  relation  of 
the  monastic  institutions  to  architecture  was  consequently  of 
great  importance.  In  fact,  architecture  was  practiced  almost 
entirely  by  the  clergy,  and  was  regarded  as  a  sacred  science. 
The  monastic  orders  thus  founded  and  fostered  many  arts, 
the  products  of  which  are  associated  with  the  names  of 
those  orders  at  the  present  day.  The  Dominican  order  was 
founded  in  the  South  of  Italy  by  Saint  Benedict,  and  in  its 
monasteries  throughout  Europe  were  taught  architecture, 
painting,  mosaic,  and  all  branches  of  art  work.  This  order 
of  monks  controlled  all  the  old  monasteries  in  England,  such 
as  Canterbury,  Fig.  69,  and  Westminster  Abbey,  Fig.  73. 

43.  The  Romans,  when  they  wished  to  erect  great 
monuments  of  public  utility,  could  send  to  the  spot,  no 
matter  how  remote,  an  army  of  soldiers,  and  by  their  tyran- 
nical system  of  government  compel  the  inhabitants  of  the 
locality  to  desist  from  all  other  employments  and  work  for 
the  emperor  of  Rome.  Thus  by  a  multitude  of  hands  they 
achieved  those  prodigious  results  that  today  stand  monu- 
ments to  their  enterprise  and  their  despotism. 

Had  the  builders  of  the  middle  ages  desired  to  pursue  this 
course,  they  could  not  have  found  the  army  of  workmen.  In 
a  country  without  stone,  without  money  to  buy  it,  without 
beasts  of  burden  to  transport  it  if  they  could  buy  it,  even 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  163 

without  roads  over  which  to  travel,  these  people  could 
not  possibly  attempt  to  follow  the  course  of  their  Roman 
neighbors. 

For  the  following:  reasons,  therefore,  the  religious  orders 
were  the  first  that  could  by  themselves  undertake  important 
building: 

1.  Because   they   could   gather  together  at   one   place   a 
number    of    men    (monks)    united    by    a    single    paramount 
thought,  subject  to  discipline,  freed   from  military  service, 
and  possessors,  in  the  name  of  the  Church,  of  the  land  on 
which  they  lived. 

2.  Because   the   religious   orders   acquired   property   and 
improved  it  under  a  regular  administration;    because   they 
joined  in  amicable   intercourse  with  neighboring  establish- 
ments; because  they  plowed  the  uncultivated  lands,  laid  out 
roads,  and  with  the  fruits  and  tolls  of  their  industries  bought 
quarries  and  woodlands,  built  workshops,  and  offered  to  the 
peasants  guarantees  that  could  be  depended  on.     Thus  the 
church  lands  were   rapidly   populated   and   improved,  while 
those  of  the  laity  and  nobility  were  continually  devastated 
by  war. 

3.  Because  the  religious  orders  were  able  to  form — with 
their   monasteries,   schools  of  craftsmen,  subject  to  regular 
apprenticeship,  clothed,  fed,  maintained,  and  worked  under 
the  same  directing  influence — schools  that  preserved  tradi- 
tions and  recorded  improvements. 

4.  Because  the  churchmen  alone,  at  that  time,  extended 
an  influence  to  a  distance  by  founding  remote  establishments 
subject  to  the  mother  abbey. 

Hence,  to  the  activity  of  religious  orders  the  art  of  con- 
struction owes  its  rise  from  barbarism  in  the  llth  century. 

44.  Political  and  Historical. — About  the  year  800 
A.  D.,  the  Roman  Empire  in  Western  Europe  passed  entirely 
from  the  hands  of  the  descendants  of  the  original  Romans 
by  the  election  of  Charlemagne,  a  Prankish  king,  as  emperor. 
Charlemagne  encouraged  the  establishment  of  the  monastic 
communities  and  thus  encouraged  building.  He  restored  the 


164  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

arts,   improved  civilization,  and  did  much  for  the   general 
progress  of  Western  Europe. 

However,  a  popular  superstition  did  much  to  retard  the 
progress  of  this  period.  It  was  generally  accepted  as  a  fact 
that  the  end  of  the  world  would  come  in  the  year  1000,  and 
few  buildings  were  erected  as  the  task  seemed  to  be  useless. 
When  the  dreaded  year  arrived  and  passed,  however,  the 
superstition  was  broken,  and  building  activity  sprang  up 
everywhere.  All  the  great  nations  of  Europe  had  by  this 
time  come  into  existence.  France,  Germany,  and  Spain  were 
becoming  individually  powerful.  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway, 
and  England  were  distinct  kingdoms,  and,  under  individual 
influences,  were  developing  individual  styles.  Civilization 
progressed  rapidly  and  independently  in  each  local  section. 

45.  Feudalism. — Before  studying  the  development  of 
medieval  architecture  it  will  be  necessary  to  consider  the 
peculiar  system  of  government  that  existed  throughout 
Europe  during  the  middle  ages.  This  system  was  called 
feudalism,  and  developed  from  the  peculiar  relation  that 
existed  in  the  Teutonic  tribes  between  the  men  and  their 
chiefs.  When  these  tribes  overthrew  the  Roman  Empire, 
476  A.  D.,  every  free  Teuton  that  had  served  his  chief  in  the 
conquest  received  as  his  share  of  the  spoils  a  tract  of  land 
that  became  his  personal  property,  or  freehold.  The  chief, 
of  course,  retained  a  very  large  domain  for  himself  and  it 
became  customary  for  him  to  grant  portions  of  this  domain 
to  certain  of  his  favorites  and  followers  on  condition  that 
they  would  serve  him  in  time  of  war.  These  grants  of  land 
were  different  from  the  freeholds,  and  were  called  fiefs. 
The  person  that  received  them  did  not  own  the  land,  but 
held  it  by  feudal  tenure  so  long  as  the  conditions  imposed 
on  him  by  his  chief  were  fulfilled.  The  chief,  or  king, 
could  recall  the  land  at  any  time  he  wanted  and  give  it  to 
another  if  he  chose.  The  person  holding  the  land  under 
feudal  tenure  was  called  a  vassal. 

Just  as  chiefs  or  kings  made  feudal  grants  to  their  favorites, 
so  some  of  the  smaller  Teutonic  landowners  granted  portions 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  165 

of  their  land  and  retained  vassals  of  their  own.  Bishops  and 
abbots  granted  extensive  tracts  to  various  knights,  who  thus 
became  vassals  of  the  Church.  By  the  llth  century,  all 
Europe  was  governed  by  a  system  of  feudal  tenure,  and 
very  little  land  was  held  in  freehold.  The  great  nobles  that 
originally  inherited  freeholds  were  glad  to  return  them  to 
the  king  and  receive  them  back  as  fiefs,  thereby  becoming 
vassals  of  the  king  and  receiving  from  him  many  rich  gifts 
that  were  in  his  power  to  bestow.  Thus,  all  property  became 
a  connected  system  of  fiefs,  and,  from  the  king  down  to  the 
poorest  freeman,  land  was  held  in  feudal  tenure,  and  every 
individual  was  a  vassal  to  some  one  a  little  higher  up. 
Kings  themselves  became  vassals  of  other  kings  in  the 
cases  of  the  lands  lying  beyond  the  boundaries  of  their 
kingdoms.  Thus,  William  the  Conqueror,  when  he  became 
king  of  England,  was,  as  duke  of  Normandy,  a  vassal  of  the 
king  of  France. 

46.  So  far  only  landholders  have  been  considered,  and 
these  were  the  forefathers  of  subsequent  nobles;  the  great 
mass  of  the  people,  however,  were  not  freeholders  at  all,  but 
serfs.  Serfs  were  not  slaves — they  could  not  be  bought  and 
sold — but  they  were  bound  to  the  land  and  belonged  to  it,  so 
that  when  it  changed  hands  from  one  owner  to  another,  they 
were  bound  to  change  with  it.  Each  fief  consisted  of  two 
distinct  details:  the  castle,  usually  located  on  a  hill,  where 
the  proprietor,  or  noble,  lived  with  his  family  and  his 
soldiers,  and  the  village,  or  cite,  which  was  inhabited  by 
the  tillers  of  the  soil.  Many  of  these  were  free-born  men 
that  rented  land  or  served  for  wages,  while  others  were 
serfs  that  were  the  born  servants  of  the  owner  of  the  soil. 

Feudalism  tended  to  prevent  the  growth  of  the  nations. 
A  kingdom  consisted  of  a  cluster  of  principalities  under  a 
common  head — the  king  or  emperor — but  that  head  lacked 
power,  as  no  one  of  the  nobles,  should  he  choose  to  dis- 
obey the  king,  could  be  forced  to  fulfil  his  feudal  duties 
except  by  means  of  war.  Consequently,  the  kings  were  at 
war  with  one  or  more  of  their  vassals  nearly  all  the  time. 


166  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

47.  Chivalry. — One  important  product  of  feudalism  was 
chivalry,  which  grew  into  a  tremendous  establishment  and 
for  several  centuries  exercised  a  marked  influence  on  the 
habits,  manners,  thoughts,  and  sentiments  of  men  of  all 
nations  in  Western  Europe.  Chivalry  was  at  the  zenith  of 
its  influence  at  the  time  of  the  crusades,  which  will  be 
discussed  later,  and  it  ceased  to  exist  when  feudal  society 
became  extinct.  Chivalry  had  its  origin  in  two  characteristic 
instincts  of  the  Gothic  races:  first,  the  great  honor  paid  to 
the  profession  of  arms,  and,  second,  the  delicate  gallantry  of 
the  Teutons  to  the  female  sex. 

In  the  llth  century,  it  was  customary  for  all  sons  of  the 
various  vassals  of  a  lord  to  attend  a  court,  or  school,  in  his 
castle,  where,  with  the  members  of  the  lord's  own  family, 
they  were  trained  in  military  exercises  and  feudal  etiquette. 
Boys  from  7  to  14  years  of  age  were  termed  Pages,  and  the 
duties  of  these  pages  were  to  attend  the  ladies  of  the  mansion 
in  their  walks,  rides,  and  hunting  trips.  The  page  was 
taught  obedience  and  courtesy,  and  was  instructed  in  music, 
chess,  religion,  and  the  use  of  light  weapons.  Being  thus 
constantly  surrounded  by  noble  knights  and  ladies,  the 
boy's  earliest  impressions  were  of  gallantry,  honor,  and 
bravery.  At  the  age  of  14  the  boy  became  a  squire,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  serve  some  knight  and  learn  the  profession 
of  arms  under  his  tuition,  to  look  after  the  arraying  of  his 
master's  armor,  and  to  attend  him  in  time  of  war.  At  the 
age  of  21,  after  an  imposing  ceremony,  during  which  he  took 
a  vow  to  champion  the  Church  and  the  clergy,  and  to  be  a 
protector  of  ladies  and  a  redresser  of  the  wrongs  of  widows 
and  orphans,  the  squire  became  a  knight.  The  attainment 
of  knighthood  was  the  ambition  of  every  youth,  and  to  this 
end  his  entire  education  was  arranged.  Reading  and  writing 
were  useless  accomplishments  at  this  period. 

Chivalry  had  much  to  do  with  establishing  the  customs  and 
habits  of  the  people  until  the  decline  of  feudalism,  and  its  influ- 
ence extends  even  to  the  present  day.  From  the  knight  of  the 
middle  ages  developed  the  gentleman  of  today.  In  antiquity 
men  were  trained  to  be  heroes;  the  l&n&gentleman  was  unknown. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  167 

48.  The  Dark  Ages. — During  a  part  of  this  feudal 
period,  it  is  strange  to  note,  civilization  declined  almost  to 
barbarism.  Up  to  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  the 
Romans  enjoyed  a  high  state  of  civilization  and  culture,  and 
great  libraries  of  books  existed  in  Rome  and  Alexandria. 
These  books  were  written  in  Latin,  which  was  the  language 
of  the  Roman  Empire  at  that  time,  but  for  the  succeeding 
three  centuries  the  barbarous  Teutons  that  had  conquered 
Rome  refused  to  take  on  themselves  any  culture,  and 
learned  only  sufficient  Latin  to  enable  them  to  govern  and 
trade  in  their  Roman  possessions.  The  Latin  spoken  by  the 
Teutonic  invader  was  a  sort  of  broken  Latin,  which  was 
called  Roman,  while  the  classic  Latin  was  still  written  by  the 
scholars,  most  of  whom  were  the  clergy.  Different  parts 
of  the  country  produced  different  dialects  of  this  Roman 
language,  and  so  there  gradually  developed  the  Italian, 
French,  and  Spanish  languages.  Latin  had  ceased  to  be  a 
living  language,  and  the  treasure  of  knowledge  in  Latin 
books  was  apparently  forever  locked  up  from  the  people. 
Those  who  might  have  had  a  desire  to  study  were  left 
destitute,  as  all  books  were  in  classic  Latin,  which  could  not 
be  understood  by  them,  while  in  the  Roman  language,  which 
they  did  understand,  no  books  were  written.  There  being 
no  books,  there  was  no  necessity  of  being  able  to  read  or 
write,  and  it  was  rare  for  any  one  but  a  churchman  to  be  able 
to  sign  his  name.  Latin  was  still  taught  in  the  monasteries 
and  was  reserved  for  religious  education,  but  the  people  in 
general  had  no  opportunities  to  learn  it.  Even  the  Latin 
books  became  scarce,  thus  involving  even  the  clergy  to  a 
certain  extent  in  the  general  ignorance. 

Only  two  kinds  of  writing  material  were  then  known: 
parchment,  and  paper  made  from  the  papyrus  plant.  After 
the  Saracens  invaded  and  conquered  Northern  Africa,  papy- 
rus was  unobtainable,  and  new  parchment  was  too  costly  to 
be  spared  for  book  purposes.  This  caused  the  monks  to 
erase  many  old  manuscripts  from  the  parchments  and  to  write 
new  ones  on  the  same  pages.  In  this  way,  many  of  the 
works  of  ancient  authors  were  lost  in  order  to  supply 


168  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

material  on  which  a  religious  sentiment  or  the  legend  of  a 
saint  might  be  written.  The  few  sparks  of  ancient  learning 
that  survived  during  these  centuries  were  preserved  only 
through  the  Church.  The  monks  were  taught  to  read  and 
write,  and  they  spent  much  of  their  time  in  illuminating 
missals  and  executing  wonderful  work  with  the  stylus  and 
brush,  so  that  through  the  monasteries  a  slight  knowledge 
of  the  conditions  of  this  period  has  been  preserved  to  the 
present  day.  That  this  barbarism  and  inactivity  was  due  to 
the  lack  of  books  will  be  evinced  later  on,  and  with  the 
invention  of  printing  came  the  awakening,  advancement,  and 
real  progress  of  the  world. 

The  illuminated  manuscripts  of  the  Middle  Ages  are 
wonderful  works  of  art  and  skill.  They  are  mostly  written 
in  Latin;  the  body  of  the  text  being  executed  letter  by  letter 
with  the  stylus,  and  the  initials,  borders,  chapter  head- 
ings, etc.  rendered  in  gold  and  color  with  the  stylus  and 
brush,  Fig.  16  (a) .  Many  of  these  manuscripts  were  the  work 
of  a  lifetime  in  the  monasteries,  and  no  amount  of  trouble 
seemed  excessive  to  the  devoted  monks  that  had  conse- 
crated their  life's  work  to  the  propagation  of  their  religion. 

Illumination  did  not  originate  in  the  monasteries,  however, 
as  the  art  was  derived  from  Greece,  and  was  never  lost  in 
Europe  until  after  the  invention  of  printing.  None  of  the 
early  Greek  and  Roman  manuscripts  have  been  preserved, 
but  there  are  many  designs  in  the  Byzantine  manuscripts 
that  are  evidently  copied  after  them. 

Illumination  was  also  practiced  by  the  Arabs,  Persians, 
and  other  Oriental  nations,  and  many  beautiful  pages  from 
the  Koran  exist,  that  were  executed  from  the  14th  to  the 
18th  century. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  169 


CHARACTERISTICS 

49.  The   term  Romanesque  can  be   said  to   apply  to   all 
architectural    constructions    in   Western    Europe    that    were 
based  on  Roman  art  and  theory,  and  carried  out  in  a  rough 
and  primitive  way  according  to  the  means  and  material  of 
each  individual  community.     In  general  character,  Roman- 
esque architecture  is  simple,  sober,  and  dignified;  but  it  is 
picturesque  through  the  introduction  and  grouping  of  towers 
and  the  projection  of  various  wings  and  transepts.     A  new 
constructive  principle  now  appears — the  principle  of  equilib- 
rium, or  balance,  in  contrast  to  the  principle  of  stability,  as 
practiced  by  the  Romans.     Where  the  Roman  architect  had 
to  withstand  the  thrust  of  an  arch,  he  planted  an  immense 
quantity  of  masonry  strong  enough  to  withstand  it  by  dead 
weight;  whereas,  if  a  Romanesque  architect  wished  to  with- 
stand the  thrust  of  an  arch,  he  arranged  for  it  to  receive  the 
thrust  of  another  arch  in  an  opposite  direction,  thus  counter- 
acting the  force. 

A  new  material  also  was  now  used — dressed,  or  cut,  stone 
laid  together  in  the  body  of  the  wrall  with  beds  of  mortar. 
Heretofore,  walls  had  been  of  concrete  and  were  only 
veneered,  or  surfaced,  with  stone,  but  now  stone  was  built  in 
as  part  of  the  wall,  and  by  this  newr  employment  of  the 
material,  architecture  became  a  system  of  construction,  and 
development  of  this  construction  henceforth  marked  the 
development  of  a  new  architectural  style.  Here,  too,  is 
found  the  column  used  as  a  direct  support  of  the  building. 
In  Roman  architecture,  the  columns  were  applied  on  the 
faces  of  concrete  piers  or  supported  only  an  entablature  over 
a  porch.  The  Romanesque  architect,  however,  used  columns 
to  support  the  arches,  taking  up  the  thrusts  by  counter- 
thrusts  from  other  arches. 

50.  The   principle   of  balanced  thrusts  is  illustrated   in 
Fig.  17.     In   (a)   is   shown   a  section   through  the  roof  and 
two   side  walls  of  a  building.     The   weight  of  the  roofing 
material  presses  downwards  on  the  rafters  in  the  direction 


170  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §5d 


(*) 


FIG.  17 


(f) 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  171 

of  the  arrow  a.  This  pressure  tends  to  depress  the  rafters 
and  to  overturn  the  side  walls  in  the  direction  b.  If,  instead 
of  rafters,  a  masonry  arch  is  turned  between  the  walls  as  in 
(b),  the  effect  will  be  the  same.  The  load  in  the  direction  a 
will  be  split  Jand  transmitted  against  the  walls  in  the  direc- 
tion c,  and  unless  they  are  strong  and  heavy  enough  to 
withstand  this  thrust,  they  will  turn  over  in  the  direction  b. 
Two  upright  timbers  supporting  two  rafters,  as  in  (c), 
would  immediately  fall  outwards  if  a  load  were  imposed 
at  a;  but  this  could  be  obviated  by  placing  props  against 
these  timbers  and  driving  stakes  into  the  ground  at  the 
foot  of  the  props,  as  in  (d) .  The  thrust  would  then  take 
the  direction  cde.  Now,  applying  this  principle  to  the 
condition  existing  in  the  stone  arch  in  (b} ,  there  will  result 
a  structure  similar  to  that  shown  in  (e) ,  where  half  arches 
on  each  side  prop  up  the  main  walls  under  the  arch.  The 
development  of  this  principle  as  completed  in  (/)  presents 
the  complete  principle  of  buttresses  and  flying  buttresses 
in  medieval  architecture.  The  flying  buttresses  are  the 
semiarches  that  prop  up  the  main  arch,  and  the  simple 
buttresses,  like  stakes  in  the  ground,  carry  the  load  to  the 
earth.  This  principle  is  illustrated  in  the  cathedrals  shown 
in  Figs.  66  and  67. 

51.  Romanesque  architecture  was  distinctively  ecclesi- 
astical. Civilization  and  culture  emanated  from  the  Church, 
and  the  requirements  and  discipline  of  the  religious  orders 
gave  form  to  the  builders'  art.  The  basilican  style  of 
building,  which  had  so  well  served  the  purposes  of  the 
Church  in  the  earlier  centuries,  suited  the  new  conditions 
only  so  far  as  its  plan  was  concerned.  Corinthian  columns, 
marble  incrustations,  and  splendid  mosaics  were  not  to  be 
obtained  in  the  forest  lands  of  Northern  and  Western 
Europe,  and  the  priests  and  monks  endeavored  to  erect,  with 
unskilled  labor,  churches  of  stone  and  as  far  as  possible 
of  a  fireproof  construction  in  which  the  general  arrange- 
ment of  the  basilica  plan  should  be  maintained.  The 
struggle  with  this  problem  underlies  the  entire  system  of 


172  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

Romanesque    design,    while    the    solution    of   the    problem 
characterizes  the  development  of  the  Gothic  style. 

52.  However  rich  and  powerful  the  monks  might  be, 
compared  with  the  feudal  lords  and  barons,  they  could  not 
hope    to    build    as  the   Romans  did.     They  endeavored  to 
erect  solid  and  durable  structures,  but  practiced  the  closest 
economy,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  materials  and  men. 

To  follow  the  Roman  method  of  making  their  structures 
a  mass  of  rubble  between  two  faces  of  ashlar  or  brick, 
demanded  more  laborers  than  they  had  at  their  disposal. 
To  build  of  enormous  blocks  of  hewn  stone,  carefully  cut 
and  set,  as  the  Greeks  did,  required  means  of  transportation 
far  beyond  their  facilities.  So  they  pursued  a  middle 
course.  For  the  principal  points  of  support,  they  used  cut 
stone  as  a  casing  and  filled  in  with  rubble,  and  for  other 
walls,  a  thin  facing  of  ashlar  enclosing  a  concrete  filling 
made  of  pebbles  and  mortar. 

The  Roman  buildings,  by  reason  of  the  absolute  stability 
of  the  different  points  of  support  and  the  perfect  concretion, 
or  solidifying,  of  all  the  upper  parts,  presented  immovable 
masses,  as  if  they  had  been  cut  out  of  a  single  block.  The 
Romanesque  builders  soon  realized  that  their  buildings 
presented  no  such  stable  conditions.  The  piers,  which  were 
formed  only  with  a  veneering  of  solid  stone  and  put  together 
with  a  poor  quality  of  mortar,  and  the  walls,  which  were 
unbonded  throughout  their  height,  suffered  from  unequal 
settlement,  causing  ruptures,  and,  consequently,  serious 
accidents.  These  errors  were  not  repeated,  however,  and 
the  endeavor  to  avoid  them  resulted  in  a  new  development. 

53.  Romanesque  Vaulting. — In  order  to  comprehend 
the  development  of  architecture  from  this  period  to  the  end 
of  the  Gothic  period,  the  system  and  development  of  vaulting 
should  be  clearly  understood. 

Toward  the  beginning  of  the  llth  century  the  Roman- 
esque architects  attempted  to  vault  their  structures.  They 
had  inherited  a  knowledge  of  the  value  of  the  Roman  vault, 
but  were  unable  to  use  it  owing  to  the  lack  of  sufficiently 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


173 


powerful  walls  in  the  structures  they  had  built.  The 
Roman  vault  will  sustain  itself  only  when  its  supports  are 
solid  and  immovable;  for  it  is  formed  of  a  homogeneous 
crust  of  concrete,  which,  lacking  elasticity,  breaks  to  pieces 
if  small  crevices  appear  in  its  curve.  Unable  to  furnish 
sufficiently  stable  walls  to  support  vaults  as  the  Romans  did, 
the  medieval  builders  invented  new  methods  of  holding 
them  firmly.  The  earliest  of  these  attempts  ended  in  failure, 
but  from  the  very  beginning,  a  new  system  of  building  is 
apparent,  founded  on  the  principle  of  elasticity,  in  contrast 
to  the  principle  of  stability,  or  rigidity,  practiced  by  the 
Romans.  The  typical  Roman  vault,  Fig.  18  (a),  is  built  of 
rough-stone  concrete,  and  though  sometimes  strengthened  by 


FIG.  18 


arches  of  brick,  these  arches  are  buried  in  the  concrete  and 
thereby  become  a  part  of  the  homogeneous  mass.  In  con- 
trast to  this  method,  the  Romanesque  builders  constructed 
their  vaults  of  hewn  stone  laid  in  mortar,  following  the  form 
of  the  Roman  cradle  vault  shown  at  (a). 

54.  The  medieval  craftsmen  at  this  time  knew  nothing 
of  the  laws  of  statics,  and  the  thrust  exercised  by  the  arch 
on  the  side  walls  being  something  entirely  new  to  them, 
they  neglected  to  provide  sufficient  means  to  withstand  it. 
Consequently,  at  the  end  of  the  llth  century,  many  churches 


174 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


and  halls  that  had  been  built  and  vaulted  for  a  period  of  only 
50  years  fell  in  ruins  from  the  collapse  of  their  walls,  due  to 
the  thrust  of  their  vaults.  These  accidents,  though  unfor- 
tunate, bore  good  fruit;  they  were  a  lesson  to  the  builders, 
and  showed  that  other  means  had  to  be  provided  to  accom- 
plish the  desired  end.  These  same  builders  knew  that  a 
groined  vault,  such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  18  (b) ,  exercised  its 
pressure  and  thrust  only  at  the  four  supports,  and,  recog- 
nizing the  advantage  of  the  groined  vault,  they  tried  to 
replace  the  cradle  vault  with  it  and  thereby  bring  all  the 
weight  on  piers,  which  they  hoped  to  be  able  to  render 
stable.  But  new  difficulties  immediately  arose.  The  Roman 
groined  vault  can  be  built  only  over  a  square  space,  and  it 
was  necessary  to  invent  a  combination  of  groined  vaults 
adapted  to  an  oblong  space. 

55.  The  building  of  a  Roman  groined  vault  requires  four 
semicircular  centers,  or  templets,  one  for  each  end  of  the 

intersecting  vaults, 
and  also  two  diago- 
nal centers,  the  curve 
of  which  is  not  a 
semicircle,  like  the 
other  four,  but  an 
ellipse,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  19,  in  which  the 
two  front  ends  of  the 
vaults  are  removed 
to  show  the  line 
of  intersection,  or 
groin,  and  the  elliptical  profile  for  the  center  eoe. 

The  Romanesque  builders  did  not  comprehend  the  curve 
of  the  ellipse,  and,  having  described  a  semicircle  in  order  to 
cut  out  timber  centers  of  the  four  arches  generating  the 
vault,  they  described  a  second  semicircle  on  the  diagonal 
as  a  diameter  in  order  to  cut  out  the  two  diagonal  centers. 
Thus,  the  crown  o,  Fig.  20,  where  these  two  vaults  inter- 
sected, was  on  a  higher  level  than  the  crowns  a  and  b  in  the 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


175 


FIG.  20 


generating  arches,  and  the  vault,  instead  of  being  the  result 

of   the   intersection  of   two   semicylinders,   was   a   nameless 

compound  of  curved  surfaces,  slightly  resembling  a  dome. 
On  this  principle  is  based  the  whole  system  of  vaulting 

during     the     middle  , 

ages.     This  principle 

is    important     on 

account    of    the    fact 

that,    though    they 

were    trying    to    use 

the   Roman   vault, 

they    modified    it    to 

such   an    extent    that 

it  became  a  different 

device    entirely,    and 

the    builders    of    the 

middle  ages  were  thus  suddenly  emancipated  from  all  the 

bad  influences  of  the  Roman  style,  and  left  free  to  develop  a 

new  style  from  the  raw  material  they  had  at  hand,  in  the 

same  manner  that 
the  Byzantine  build- 
ers developed  an 
original  style,  by 
careful  study  of  the 
structural  principles 
of  the  dome. 

56.  Having  modi- 
fied the  Roman  vault 
in  this  way,  the  next 
problem  was  to  apply 
it  to  oblong  plans, 
for  the  builders  had 
already  realized  the 
danger  of  applying  cradle  vaults  to  wide  spans.  The 
Roman  groined  vault,  applied  to  oblong  spans  with  a  wide 
intersection,  required  the  arch  over  the  narrow  span  to  be 
stilted,  as  shown  at  e  f,  Fig.  21,  and  the  lines  of  the  groins  a  b 


FIG.  21 


176 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


and  c  d  were  not  straight,  but  formed  the  compound  curves 
ab  and  c  d.  This  was  a  still  more  complicated  problem 
for  the  Romanesque  builders,  but  they  solved  it  in  the 
same  manner  as  before,  by  cutting  the  centers,  both 
for  the  ends  and  for  the  intersections  of  their  vaults, 
in  the  form  of  a  semicircle.  But  with  this  simple 
solution  another  difficulty  arose.  The  lines  of  inter- 
section, or  groins,  in 
the  Romanesque 
vault  were  forced  by 
circumstances  to  be 
straight  in  plan,  as 
they  were  built  over 
semicircular  centers; 
but  this  produced  such 
a  warped  surface  in 
the  vault  covering 
itself  that  the  groins 
were  projecting  at  the 
springing  point  and 
indented  at  the  crown. 
Fig.  22  shows  an 
exaggerated  form  of 
the  Romanesque 
groined  vault  with  the 
arch  e  fg  over  the  end 
r s  of  the  oblong  space 
rsut,  and  the  arch 
h  ij  over  the  side  ^  u. 
The  intersecting  curves  mno  and  pn  over  the  diagonals  ru 
and  s  t  are  semicircles,  but  the  groins  inside  the  vault  do  not 
produce  a  continuous  angle  on  which  a  bead  can  be  worked, 
as  is  the  case  when  the  arches  are  two  intersecting  cylinders 
of  the  same  diameter.  A  section  through  the  corner  on  the 
line  a  b,  would  produce  an  exterior  angle,  as  shown  at  v, 
with  the  bead  worked  on  the  corner,  but  in  following  the 
groin  up  into  the  vault,  the  angle  becomes  more  and  more 
obtuse  until  it  reverses  itself  and  at  cd  becomes  an  interior 


FIG.  22 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  177 

angle,  as  shown  at  ?f.  This  was  very  unsightly,  and  the 
builders  immediately  set  to  work  to  improve  on  it. 

57.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  pointed  arch  made  its 
appearance,  and  there   is  little  doubt  that  its  invention  or 
adoption  was  the  direct  outcome  of  the  difficulties  in  groined 
work  just  cited. 

In  Fig.  2.'>  is  shown  a  pointed  groined  vault  with  the 
groins  built  on  semicircular  centers  cdc  that  are  higher  at 
their  middle  points  o  than  the  crowns  of  the  pointed  arches 
a  and  b.  The  crown  of  the  vault  is  therefore  curved  in  the 
same  manner,  though  not  so  much  as  the  crown  of  the  vault 
shown  in  Fig.  21;  but 
the  groins  in  the 
pointed  vault  are  per- 
fectly straight  through- 
out their  length  and 
can  be  worked  o r 
beaded  as  desired.  As 
said  before,  the  method 
of  building  these  arches 
was  not  that  of  the 
Romans — a  solid  con- 
crete mass  with  brick 
arches  embedded  in 

Fir    ''3 

the  concrete  to  give  it 

strength  while  it  was  setting — but,  on  the  contrary,  the 
late  Romanesque  vault  was  composed  of  small  panels,  or 
slabs,  laid  on  the  ribs,  or  groins,  for  support.  At  each 
end  of  the  vault  a  pointed  arch  was  formed,  and  at  the  inter- 
section, or  groin,  a  semicircular  arch  was  turned,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  23;  on  these  arches  boards  were  laid,  and  the 
masonwork  of  the  vault  was  then  built  over  the  boards,  the 
arches  remaining  in  place  and  thereby  forming  a  sort  of 
permanent  center. 

58.  Fig.    24  illustrates   the   constructive   system  of  the 
late  Romanesque  or  early  Gothic  church,  the  transition  from 
one  style  to  the  other  being  so  gradual  that  an  exact  line  of 

1  L  T  303—13 


178 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


distinction  cannot  be  drawn.  The  walls  a  of  the  nave  are 
supported  on  the  columns  b,  and  the  roof  over  the  nave  is 
vaulted  in  the  Gothic  system  just  explained.  The  groins,  or 
ribs,  of  these  nave  vaults  rest  on  the  piers  c,  which  are 
directly  over  the  columns  b,  and  the  thrust  of  the  nave  vaults 
is  carried  by  the  flying  buttresses  d  across  the  aisle  vaults  e 
to  the  solid  buttresses  /,  the  lower  portion  of  which  also 
receives  the  thrusts  from  the  aisle  vaults  at  g,  thus  illustra- 


FIG.  24 

ting  the  two  great  principles  of  Gothic  construction:  concen- 
tration of  load  on  isolated  supports,  and  balanced  thrusts. 
The  former  of  these  principles  was  made  possible  by  the 
use  of  the  groined  vault  instead  of  the  barrel  vault,  as  the 
former  required  supports  only  where  the  groins  rested  and 
the  structural  details  of  the  church  became  simply  a  stone 
roof,  supported  on  masonry  stilts  and  filled  in  between  with 
thin  screen  walls,  as  shown  in  Fig.  24. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  179 

59.  The  second  of  these  Gothic  principles  of  construc- 
tion is  in  direct  opposition  to  the  Roman  system  of  vaulting, 
where  the  thrust  of  the  vault  was  resisted  entirely  by  the 
inertia  of  a  mass  of  masonry  piled  against  it  in  the  abut- 
ments. In  late  Romanesque  and  Gothic  architecture  the 
thrusts  of  one  vault  were  counteracted  or  balanced  by  the 
thrusts  of  adjacent  vaults  and  the  accumulated  strains  then 
transmitted  by  means  of  props,  or  flying  buttresses,  to  heavy 
fixed  buttresses  located  at  convenient  points.  This  system 
of  construction  reached  its  greatest  development  in  French 
cathedrals  during  the  XIII  and  XIV  centuries. 

ANALYTICAL,    STUDY 


PLANS 

60.  Charlemagne  adopted  the  plan  of  the  Roman  basilica 
as  a  model  for  his  new  churches,  and,  with  the  assistance  of 
artists  and  skilled  workmen  to  carry  out  his  ideas,  erected 
them  in  the  Roman  style.  Transepts  were  added  to  the 
basilica  until  the  church  become  crucial  in  form,  and  a 
chancel  for  the  clergy  was  screened  off  and  prolonged  on 
the  east  end.  Generally  speaking,  the  transepts  were  the 
same  width  as  the  nave,  and  the  nave  was  twice  the  width  of 
the  aisles.  The  choir  was  raised  on  a  series  of  steps,  under 
which  was  usually  established  a  crypt,  to  receive  the  dead 
bodies  of  prominent  persons.  Many  of  the  older  churches 
had  cloisters  in  connection  with  them.  These  consisted  of 
a  vaulted  passageway  extending  around  a  court  or  leading 
from  the  chapter  house  to  the  church.  The  cloisters  were 
designed  with  great  care  and  possessed  decorative  details  of 
great  beauty.  The  introduction  of  the  tower,  or  spire,  where 
the  transept  crossed  the  nave,  added  greatly  to  the  beauty 
of  some  of  these  structures,  and  gave  importance  to  this 
part  of  the  plan  which  was  termed  the  crossing.  Although 
many  adjuncts  were  introduced  into  the  Romanesque  plans, 
they  still  retained  in  the  majority  of  examples  the  funda- 
mental arrangement  of  the  Roman  basilican. 


180  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


WALLS 

61.  While  the  Roman  system  influenced  all  construction 
work  in  Europe,  it  had  materially  declined  in  character  before 
the  fall  of  the  Empire,  and  technical  skill  being  particularly 
scarce  during  the  early  Romanesque  period,  the  masonry 
was  carried  out  with  extreme  crudeness. 


ROOFS 

62.  In  the  llth  century,  vaulting  was  introduced  over 
the  side  aisles  for  the  purpose  of  fireproofing.  But  the  nave 
was  still  covered  with  a  roof  of  wood.  The  earliest  examples 
of  vaulting  appear  as  plain  intersecting  barrel  vaults  without 
any  rib  moldings,  as  in  Fig.  18  (b) ,  but  simple  ribs  were 
introduced  about  1100  A.  D.,  and  afterward  molded  ribs 
appeared. 

Thus  the  Roman  style  of  vaulting  existed  throughout 
Europe  until  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century,  when  a 
framework  of  groined  ribs  was  used  to  support  vaulted  sur- 
faces of  thinner  stone,  usually  termed  in-filling.  By  the 
latter  method  the  vault  was  designed  according  to  the  profile 
of  the  rib,  instead  of  designing  the  rib  to  conform  to  the 
profile  line  of  the  intersection  of  the  vaults.  In  the  Roman- 
esque method,  the  vault  surfaces  were  governed  entirely  by 
the  form  of  the  rib  set  for  their  intersections,  whereas  in  the 
Roman  method  the  form  of  the  vault  surfaces  was  deter- 
mined first  and  the  groins  were  left  to  come  out  in  their  own 
geometrical  form.  The  Romanesque  architects  worked  out 
problems  the  fixed  data  for  which  were  the  profiles  of  the 
intersecting  ribs;  the  Roman  architects  let  these  ribs  take 
care  of  themselves. 

The  inability  of  the  Romanesque  architect  to  lay  out  an 
ellipse  of  the  proper  height  and  span  lead  to  various  sys- 
tems in  different  parts  of  the  country.  In  Germany  and 
France,  vaulting  ribs  were  usually  portions  of  circular 
curves,  which  gave  the  intersecting  vaults  a  domical  aspect. 
In  England,  the  ridges  of  the  vaults  were  maintained  on  the 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  181 

same  level,  and  a  difference  in  height  between  the  diagonal 
rib  as  a  semicircle  and  that  of  the  profile  of  the  intersecting 
vaults  was  taken  by  stilting  the  latter.  In  cases  where  a 
large  compartment  and  a  small  one  intersected,  the  line  of 
intersection  of  the  two  vaults  presented  a  very  unsatisfactory 
and  wavy  contour.  In  some  Romanesque  churches,  as  at 
Worms  in  Germany,  Notre  Dame  at  Paris,  and  Canterbury  in 
England,  the  difficulty  of  spanning  oblong  compartments 
was  overcome  by  uniting  two  under  one  vault.  In  this 
manner  each  pair  of  side  compartments  was  made  to  corre- 
spond in  width  with  the  main  compartment  in  which  they 
were  vaulted,  as  shown  in  Fig.  54  (£),  where  the  main  bays 
are  formed  to  include  two  smaller  bays  at  the  end  of  the 
aisle  including  the  windows.  In  other  cases,  the  inter- 
mediate support  was  carried  up  and  split  into  three  ribs,  thus 
dividing  the  vaulting  into  six  triangles  in  the  plan,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  56  (c) ,  where  ab  and  cd  are  the  ribs  of  the  main 
vault  and  cf  is  the  transverse  rib  between  the  aisle  vaults. 
The  plan  therefore  shows  six  triangles  with  ae,  cc,  cb,  etc. 
as  their  bases,  and  their  vertices  at  the  point  where  a  b 
and  cd  intersect.  Such  vaulting  was  known  as  sexpartite 
vaulting,  and  the  weight  of  the  vaults  was  supported  on 
alternate  piers. 

From  this  time  forward,  the  principle  of  rib  design  dom- 
inates the  style  of  the  vault,  and  becomes  more  and  more 
complex,  characterizing  the  several  periods  of  the  Gothic 
style.  It  will  be  observed  hereafter  that  the  difficulty  of 
accommodating  different  heights  of  arches  in  the  intersections 
of  diagonal  ribs  was  entirely  overcome  by  the  introduction 
of  the  pointed  arch. 

COLUMNS 

63.  Flutings,  both  vertical  and  spiral,  and  naturalistic 
carvings  on  the  shaft  are  characteristic  of  the  Romanesque 
period.  At  first  there  was  undoubtedly  a  strong  influence 
exerted  by  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  capitals,  but  the 
characteristic  Romanesque  style  developed  itself  later. 


182  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


OPENINGS 

64.  One  of  the  strongest  characteristics  of  the  Roman- 
esque style  is  found  in  the  door  and  window  openings.     The 
jamb  around  the  door  was  formed  in  receding  planes,  or 
orders,  as  they  were  termed,  in  each  of  which  was  inserted  a 
small  circular  column.     The  arch  over  these  columns  was 
built  in  concentric  circles  [see  Fig.  49  (c)\.     Circular  win- 
dows over  the  principal  doorways  were  also  common  at  this 
time  and  the  principal  doorway  generally  entered  one  of  the 
transepts. 

MOLDINGS 

65.  Generally    speaking,    Romanesque    moldings    con- 
sisted of  the  ornamentation  of  the  projecting  stone  courses, 
with   chamfers,    rounds,    and   rough-carved    ornamentation. 
At  first  these  were  hewn  out  with  the  stone  ax,  but  after- 
wards they  were  more  finely  cut  with  the  chisel.     On  bases 
of  columns,  a  form  of  the  old  classic  base  was  used  over  a 
square  plinth,  with  carved  leaves  to  fill  up  the  projecting 
triangles  at  the  corners,  or  with  the  lower  torus  molding 
overhanging  the  plinth. 

ORNAMENT 

66.  All  decorative  design  was  derived  from  vegetable 
and  animal  elements,  and  was  very  rudely  carved  and  very 
conventionally  treated.     Fresco  is  more  frequently  found  on 
the  walls  than  mosaic,  owing  to  the  lack  of  skilful  artists, 
and  the  designs  in  stained-glass  windows  show  the  influence 
of  the  Byzantine  character. 

These  are  the  general  characteristics  of  Romanesque 
architecture  throughout  Europe.  Individual  characteristics 
will  be  discussed  under  the  separate  countries. 

Romanesque  architecture  does  not  present  that  brilliancy 
of  decorative  effect  that  characterizes  the  Byzantine.  As  has 
been  explained  heretofore,  marble  columns  and  elaborate 
mosaics  were  unattainable  by  the  Romanesque  workers, 
while  the  wealth  of  Byzantium  rendered  such  luxuries  a 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  183 

characteristic  of  the  Byzantine  style.  The  Romanesque 
builder  therefore  decorated  his  walls  with  carving  and  fresco 
work  which  he  could  execute  himself,  while  the  Byzantine 
imported  talent  from  Italy,  Greece,  and  the  Orient. 


KKVIKW    EXERCISES 

1.  When    and    in    what    countries    did    Romanesque    architecture 

flourish? 

2.  In  what  way  did  religion  affect  the  architecture  of  the  Roman- 
esque period? 

3.  In   what   way   did   the   Romanesque   system   of   building    differ 
from  the  Roman  system? 

4.  Why  was  there  but  little  building  before  the  llth  century? 

5.  (a)   What    system   of    government   existed    throughout    Europe 
during  the  Middle  Ages?     (b)   Describe  it  briefly. 

(5.     Of  what  did  chivalry  consist? 

7.  What  were  the  Dark  Ages? 

8.  To  what  does  the  term  Romanesque  architecture  apply? 

9.  What  is  the  essential  difference  between  the  Roman  system  and 
the  Romanesque  system  of  vaulting? 

10.  Give    the    general   characteristics   of    Romanesque:    (a)  plans, 
(b)  openings,  (c)  roofs. 


184  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


ITALIAN    ROMANESQUE 


INFLUENCES 

67.  Geographical. — In  Italy  there  were  different  influ- 
ences at  work  that  materially  affected  the  architecture  in 
different  sections.     The  central  portion,   as  shown  on    the 
map,  Fig.  25,  including  Rome,  extends  from  Florence  and 
Pisa  on  the  north  to  Naples  on  the  south.     Pisa  and  Naples 
were  maritime  cities  and  commanded  a  large  Mediterranean 
trade,  while  Florence  was  inland,  on  the  road  to  the  north, 
and  commanded  the  passage  of  the  Arno  River.     This  cen- 
tral section  being  nearest  Rome,  its  architecture  was  greatly 
influenced  by  the  classic  monuments. 

Northern  Italy,  extending  from  Florence  to  the  Alps  and 
Tyrolean  Mountains,  contained  the  city  of  Milan,  which 
always  enjoyed  a  prosperous  trade  owing  to  its  proximity  to 
the  Alpine  passes  and  its  position  in  the  center  of  the  state 
of  Lombardy,  of  which  it  was  the  capital.  On  the  east 
coast  are  the  cities  of  Ravenna  and  Venice,  both  of  which 
had  extensive  trade  with  Byzantium,  as  has  heretofore  been 
pointed  out.  The  Romanesque  of  Northern  Italy  was 
therefore  influenced  by  the  architecture  of  both  Northern 
Europe  and  the  Orient. 

Southern  Italy,  including  Sicily,  being  situated  practically 
in  the  center  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  had  for  years  been 
under  the  influence  of  both  Northern  Africa  and  Greece. 
Sicily  had  belonged  to  each  of  these  countries  before  it 
became  a  part  of  Italy.  The  architecture  of  Southern  Italy 
therefore  shows  the  influence  of  these  foreign  countries. 

68.  Geological. — Building  materials  abounded  in  great 
variety  in  Central  Italy.    Near  Rome,  brick,  volcanic  stones, 
and   travertin  were   used,  the   latter  being  imported  from 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


185 


Tivoli.  Marble  was  imported  from  Pharos,  Carrara,  and 
other  Greek  islands.  In  Northern  Italy,  brick  was  the 
principal  building  material  obtainable.  In  Southern  Italy, 
the  mountains  afforded  an  abundance  of  limestone. 


Medieval    Map 
of 

ITALY 


FIG.  25 

69.  Climatic. — In  Central  Italy,  the  climate  is  warm 
and  agreeable,  but  in  Northern  Italy  it  varies  from  extreme 
cold  to  excessive  heat,  similar  to  the  climate  of  Central 
Europe.  Milan  is  near  enough  to  the  mountains  to  experi- 
ence very  cold  winters,  while  its  summers  are  almost 
tropical.  Southern  Italy  enjoys  a  tropical  climate.  Palm, 


186  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

lemon,  and  orange  groves  flourish  the  year  round,  and  on 
the  southern  coast  the  climate  renders  many  Oriental 
customs  characteristic. 

70.  Religions,   Political,   and  Historical. — In  Italy 
are  found  the  first  great  influences   of  the   Church  in  the 
administration  of  the  government.     The  popes  at  Rome  had 
thus  far  only  small,  landed  estates  of  their  own,  but  their 
relations  with  the  kings,  of  the  newly  established  countries 
gave  rise  to  numerous  disputes.     Therefore,  the  history  of 
the  papacy  is  closely  interwoven  with  the  development  of 
civilization  from  this  time  on.    Until  the  overthrow  of  the 
Western  Empire,  this  part  of  the  world  was  practically  in  a 
chaotic  condition.     The  Church  alone  was  able  to  preserve 
organization  of  society,  and  therefore  became  a  great  moral 
power. 

By  the  middle  of  the  8th  century,  the  Lombards  had 
established  a  powerful  kingdom  in  Northern  Italy  and  began 
to  encroach  on  the  possessions  of  Rome  in  Central  Italy. 
Pope  Stephen  II  then  asked  Pepin,  who  was  king  of  the 
Franks  (a  Christianized  Gothic  nation  that  inhabited  nearly 
all  the  country  now  known  as  France  and  Germany),  to  help 
defend  Rome  against  the  Lombards.  Pepin  responded  to 
the  pope's  request  by  defeating  the  Lombards,  winning  from 
them  the  territory  of  Ravenna  and  other  lands,  which  he 
immediately  turned  over  to  the  pope.  Stephen  II  accepted 
this  in  the  name  of  St.  Peter,  and  thus  was  established  the 
temporal  power  of  the  Church. 

71.  On  the  death  of  Pepin,  his  empire  was  inherited  by 
his  son  Charles,  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  the  middle  ages, 
and  known  in  history  as  Charlemagne,  a  French  combination 
meaning  Charles  the  Great.     Charlemagne  invaded  Italy  in 
773  A.  D.  and  the  Lombards  were  again  defeated.     He  then 
united  Lombardy  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks  and  confirmed 
the  gifts  of  his  father,  Pepin,  to  the  pope.     At  the  end  of 
the  8th  century,  Charlemagne  entered  Rome  and  was  crowned 
emperor  of  the  West  by  the  pope.     Charlemagne  fell  heir  to 
the  kingdom  of  the   Franks,  and  at  the  age  of  60  he  was 


OO^  o  z 

a!^-- 
f 


18.1 


188  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

monarch  of  an  empire  practically  as  large  as  that  of  ancient 
Rome  (see  Fig.  26). 

Charlemagne  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Louis,  a  weak 
monarch,  under  whom  the  empire  rapidly  fell  apart.  Dis- 
putes arose,  and  Louis  turned  the  reins  of  government  over 
to  his  three  sons,  Lewis,  Lothar,  and  Charles.  These  rulers 
quarreled  among  themselves,  until  finally,  in  843  A.  D., 
the  empire  was  divided  among  them,  and  the  history  of 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy  as  separate  states  began  (see 
Fig.  26). 

During  all  this  confusion,  the  pope  at  Rome  endeavored 
to  exercise  his  authority  in  political  matters,  and  thus  insti- 
tuted a  struggle  between  the  kings  and  the  popes  that  lasted 
many  bitter  years. 

In  the  meantime,  Southern  Italy  had  come  under  the 
influence  of  the  Saracens,  who  had  landed  in  Sicily  in 
827  A.  D.  and  gradually  overran  the  whole  island.  For  a 
century,  the  Saracens  held  full  power,  but  they  finally 
quarreled  among  themselves  and  lost  the  island  to  France. 


CENTRAL   ITALIAN  ROMANESQUE 


CHARACTERISTICS 

72.  In  Central  Italy,  the  general  type  of  the  basilica 
was  maintained,  owing  to  the  proximity  of  Roman  models. 
New  ideas  of  any  form  were  few,  and  no  tendency  toward 
a  new  style  seemed  apparent. 


EXAMPLES 

73.  Cathedral  at  Pisa.— The  cathedral  at  Pisa,  Fig.  27, 
is  a  characteristic  building  of  this  period.  Small,  external, 
superimposed  arcades  produce  a  fine  effect,  as  does  also  the 
treatment  of  the  walls  with  blind,  or  false,  arcades,  in  red 
and  white  marble.  The  interior  columns  support  a  flat  ceil- 
ing, suggesting  the  basilican  church. 


FIG.  28 


190 


FIG.  29 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  193 

74.  Leaning    Tower    at    Pisa. — The    leaning    tower, 
Fig.  28,  located  at  Pisa,  is  also  characteristic  of  the  Central 
Italian  style  of  Romanesque,  particularly  in  the  arrangement 
of  its  superimposed  arcades. 

75.  Baptistery   at   Pisa. — The   baptistery  at   Pisa, 
Fig.  29,   is  built  of  marble,   and  on   the  first  story  is   sur- 
rounded by  half  columns  connected  by  an  encircling  arcade. 
There  are  many  later  additions   that  give   this   structure  a 
Gothic  character,  so  that  above  the  first  story  it  should  not 
be  classed  in  the  Romanesque  style. 

76.  Cloisters  of  St.  Paul's. — The  cloisters  of  St.  Paul's 
Church  at  Rome,  Fig.  30,  are  of  more  than  ordinary  interest. 
They  are  vaulted  over  square  bays  and  arcaded  in  groups  of 
four  or  five  openings.     The  columns  are  wonderful  exhibits 
of  the  craftsman's  skill,  being  designed  as  twisted  shafts  and 
inlaid  with  glass  mosaics  in  beautiful  and  intricate  patterns. 


NORTHERN    ITALIAN    ROMANESQUE 


CHARACTERISTICS 

77.  In  Northern  Italy,  the  arcades  that  decorate  the 
exteriors  are  restricted  to  the  gables  and  minor  details, 
instead  of  being  carried  through  several  stories  as  in  Central 
Italy.  The  facades  are  wide  and  unbroken  by  any  details 
to  mark  the  nave  and  the  aisles  characteristically.  The  main 
entrance  is  sometimes  protected  by  a  porch  whose  columns 
rest  on  carved  lions,  and  over  this  porch  a  circular  window 
lights  the  nave.  Stone  and  brick  being  the  principal  mate- 
rials, the  exteriors  are  less  elegant  than  the  marble  facades 
of  Central  Italy.  The  carved  details  show  scenes  taken  from 
the  hunt  and  other  pastimes  characteristic  of  the  northern 
invaders,  and  the  grotesque  element  is  prominent,  being  a 
decided  digression  from  classic  influences. 

The  churches  are  mostly  of  the  basilican  type  and  are 
generally  vaulted  and  roofed.  The  aisles  are  frequently 

I  L  T  303—14 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  195 

two  stories  in  height,  omitting  the  clearstory  in  the  nave. 
Chapels  are  built  along  the  side  aisles,  the  walls  that  sep- 
arate them  serving  as  interior  buttresses. 

The  campaniles,  or  bell  towers,  which  were  not  attached 
to  the  buildings,  but  set  at  a  distance  or  connected  by 
cloisters,  are  also  characteristic  of  the  style  in  this  section 
of  the  country. 

EXAMPLE 

78.  Church  of  San  Mlchclc.  — The  church  of  San 
Michele,  at  Pavia,  Fig.  31,  shows  the  characteristic  Northern 
Italy  facade  with  the  colonnade  along  the  gable. 

The  facade  is  simple  and  constructed  of  irregular-sided 
stone  laid  with  wide  joints.  Carved  ornament  frames  the 
portals,  which  are  deep  and  splay  outwards  from  the  door- 
way to  the  face  of  the  walls.  Over  each  portal  a  figure  is 
carved,  and  horizontal  bands  of  ornament  are  arranged  in 
the  courses  of  the  lower  part  of  the  front.  The  plan  is 
vaulted  in  square  bays,  and  slightly  projecting  buttresses 
mark  the  width  of  the  nave  on  the  fagade.  There  are  no 
projecting  side  buttresses  on  the  exterior,  but  buttresses  to 
receive  the  vault  thrusts  exist  on  the  interior,  and  form 
dividing  lines  between  the  chapels. 


SOUTHERN    ITALIAN    ROMANESQUE 

79.  The  influence  of  Oriental  art — both  Byzantine  and 
Mohammedan — is  observable  in  all  the  South  Italy  con- 
structions. The  cathedral  of  Monreale,  near  Palermo, 
Fig.  32,  is  a  characteristic  example.  The  plan  is  typically 
basilican,  but  the  columns  of  the  nave  support  Byzantine 
capitals.  Rich-colored  mosaics  adorn  the  walls  and  are 
surrounded  by  arabesques  of  Mohammedan  origin.  The 
columns  of  the  cloisters,  shown  in  Fig.  33,  are  richly  worked 
in  mosaics  and  carved  relief,  the  designs  varying  in  alter- 
nate groups,  with  an  indiscriminate  intermixture  of  Byzan- 
tine and  Mohammedan  detail.  This  is  also  evident  in  the 
interlaced  borders  around  the  door  shown  in  Fig.  34. 


FIG.  33 


FIG.  34 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  199 


ANALYTICAL,   STUDY 

80.  The  plans  in  the  Italian  Romanesque  style  were 
mostly  on  the  basilican  order,  with  the  choir  raised  to  per- 
mit a  crypt  below.  Circular  examples  exist,  as  baptistries. 

The  walls  were  pierced  by  open  arcades  in  a  single  course 
of  arches  in  the  north  of  Italy,  but  by  a  series  of  several 
galleries  in  the  central  part.  Projecting  porches  resting  on 
carved  lions  mark  the  entrances  in  Northern  Italy,  while 
circular  windows  light  the  nave. 

The  openings  were  small,  particularly  in  the  central  and 
southern  portions,  where  the  light  is  'strong  and  the  heat 
excessive.  Blind  arches  of  colored  materials  were  designed 
in  the  walls,  to  overcome  the  absence  of  window  details. 

The  roofs  were  either  vaulted  or  timbered,  as  in  the 
basilicas  of  Rome,  and  where  the  timber  work  was  exposed, 
great  decorative  detail  was  applied. 

The  columns  were  built  up  as  square  piers  with  half  shafts 
attached,  especially  in  the  north,  where  vaulting  was  more 
generally  practiced,  and  the  buttresses  existed  almost  entirely 
on  the  interior  of  the  buildings  as  separating  partitions  for 
the  numerous  side  chapels. 

The  ornament  consisted  of  crude,  grotesque  designs  repre- 
senting men  and  animals,  varying  in  subjects  from  hunting 
scenes  in  the  northern  examples  to  apostolic  processions 
and  symbols  in  Central  Italy.  Southern  ornament  is  charac- 
terized by  decorative  bronze  doors,  as  at  Monreale,  Fig.  34, 
and  geometrical  mosaics  and  carved  running  ornament  of 
Mohammedan  and  Byzantine  origin.  Colored-glass  windows 
formed  no  characteristic  part  of  Italian  Romanesque,  owing 
to  the  smallness  of  the  openings.  Northern  and  Southern 
Italy  were  strongly  opposed  to  each  other  in  decorative 
subjects,  owing  to  the  different  geographical  influences. 
Southern  Italy,  being  nearer  to  the  Byzantine  and  Moham- 
medan countries,  absorbed  decorative  ideas  from  these 
neighbors,  while  Northern  Italy,  being  close  to  the  hunting 
tribes  of  the  mountains,  introduced  the  hunt  as  a  theme  for 
their  decorations. 


200 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


FRENCH  ROMANESQUE 


INFLUENCES 

81.     Geographical. — France    lies    between    Rome   and 
Northwest    Europe,    and  during  the    greatest  days  of    the 


FIG.  35 


Romnn  Empire,  it  was  by  way  of  Provence  and  the  river 
Rhone  that  civilization  spread  to  the  north   (see  Fig.  35). 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  201 

82.  Geological. — Stone  is  abundant  throughout  France, 
and  consequently  most  of  the  structures  in  that  country  are 
built  of  this  material.     The  soft,  fine  stone  of  Caen  was  not 
only  used  throughout  Normandy,  but  was  shipped  across  the 
English  Channel  in  later  years  and  influenced  the  architecture 
in  England.     In  Auvergne,  a  volcanic  material  found  in  the 
mountains  was  used  in   some   constructions,   giving  a  soft- 
colored  bloom  to  the  buildings. 

83.  Climatic. — The   climate   of   France  varies  from   a 
tropical  condition  on  the  Mediterranean  to  a  cold  and  foggy 
atmosphere    on    the   English   Channel.      It   is    warm    on    the 
west  coast,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Gulf  Stream  closely 
approaches  the  shore. 

84.  Religious. — Christianity,    when   it   spread    through 
France,    took    a    firm    hold   in   the   Rhone   Valley.     In   this 
district,  the  Cistercian  monks  enacted  severe  rules  as  to  the 
character   of  church   buildings   that   materially   affected   the 
local  style. 

85.  Political  and  Historical. — Up  to  the  end  of  the 
10th  century,  the  greater  part  of  France  had  been  held  by 
independent  lords  and  nobles.     In  927  A.  D.,  Hugh  Capet, 
one  of  these  lords,  elected  himself  king,  united  the  provinces 
into  a  feudal  monarchy,  and  selected   Paris  as   his   capital. 
This   was    the    beginning    of    France.     As    the    king    could 
exercise  little  authority  beyond  his  capital,  lawlessness  was 
rife  throughout  the  country,  and  architecture  made  little  or 
no    progress    until    a    more    settled   state   of   affairs   set   in. 
During  the  weak  reigns  of  the  descendants  of  Charlemagne, 
Northern  France  was  invaded  by  the  Northmen,  a  tribe  from 
Northern  Europe  under  their  leader  Rollo,  who  settled  and 
gave  name  to  Normandy. 

In  1066,  the  Normans,  under  William,  a  descendant  of 
Rollo,  crossed  the  Channel  and  conquered  England.  William 
ruled  as  king  of  England  and  retained  Normandy  as  a 
province— a  circumstance  that  subsequently  gave  rise  to 
frequent  wars  between  England  and  France. 


202  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


CHARACTERISTICS 

86.  In  Southern  France  is  found  an  adaptation  of  Roman 
features  without  any  servile  copying  of  individual  forms. 
Vast  interiors  enclosed  by  massive  walls  seem  to  have  had 
their  origin  in  the  Roman  therma,  or  baths,  rather  than  in 
the  basilican  plan;  and  the  Byzantine  system  of  construction, 
without    its    elaborate    decorative    effect,    can    be    seen   in 
Gascony. 

In  the  north,  the  style  shows  the  first  steps  in  the  coming 
change  to  the  Gothic  system  of  construction.  The  interiors 
were  very  impressive,  great  loftiness  of  the  naves  being  a 
strong  characteristic,  and  the  vaults  were  ponderous,  being 
supported  on  massive  piers.  In  the  valley  of  the  river 
Loire,  vaulting  made  rapid  progress  in  constructive  ingenuity, 
but  the  system  practiced  in  the  north  differed  from  that  in  the 
south.  In  the  south,  the  nave  was  covered  by  barrel  vaults, 
after  the  Roman  fashion,  but  the  thrust  was  resisted  by  half 
vaults  two  stories  in  height  extending  over  the  aisles.  In 
the  north,  groined  vaults  were  built  over  a  square  compart- 
ment, in  the  nave,  executed  in  sexpartite  vaulting,  the  ribs  or 
groins  of  which  were  constructed  independently  of  heavy 
stone  and  the  infilling  inserted  afterwards. 

87.  As  there  are  peculiarities  traceable  to  the  local  con- 
ditions in  both  Northern  and  Southern  France,  the  country 
must  be  considered  in  two   sections,  the  river  Loire  con- 
veniently forming  the  dividing  line. 

Along  the  Rhone  Valley,  which  had  been  originally  settled 
by  the  Romans,  is  found  the  strongest  classic  influences,  as 
at  Nimes  and  Aries. 

Southern  France  can  be  divided  into  five  provinces: 
Aquitania,  Auvergne,  Provence,  Anjou,  and  Burgundy  (Gas- 
cony  and  Languedoc  were  originally  included  with  these). 
In  Northern  France  are  Paris  and  its  environs  (Champagne, 
Flanders,  etc.)  and  the  provinces  of  Normandy  and  Brittany. 

In  Aquitania  are  found  two  systems  of  construction,  one 
with  round,  arched,  tunnel  vaults,  of  Roman  origin,  and  the 


204  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

other  with  spheroidal  domes  supported  on  pointed  arches, 
indicating  Byzantine  influences. 

The  churches  of  St.  Croix  and  Notre  Dame,  Figs.  39 
and  40,  are  of  the  former,  while  the  church  of  St.  Front,  at 
Perigueux,  Fig.  36,  is  of  the  latter  class.  St.  Front  was  the 
prototype  of  domed  churches  in  France. 

Auvergne  being  a  volcanic  district,  the  principal  local 
characteristics  are  due  to  the  use  of  various  colored  lavas  as 
building  material. 

Provence  has  today  many  examples  of  the  llth-  and  12th- 
century  architecture,  showing  classic  influences  in  the 
vaulting. 

Anjou  examples  are  rich  in  decorative  treatment. 

Burgundy  was  a  province  rich  in  monastic  buildings,  which 
exercised  much  influence  over  the  architecture  of  other 
ecclesiastical  structures. 

In  Normandy,  many  fine  buildings  were  erected,  owing  to 
the  power  and  prosperity  of  the  Norman  dukes.  The 
examples  are  of  the  basilican  plan,  with  vaulted  roofs, 
which  show  the  gradual  development  toward  the  pointed 
arch. 


EXAMPLES 

88.  Church  of  St.  Front.— The  church  of  St.  Front, 
at  Perigueux,  Fig.  36,  presents  one  of  the  most  important 
examples  of  the  Romanesque  period  in  Southern  France. 
It  was  the  work  of  the  Romanesque  builders,  but  owing  to 
the  trade  that  Southern  France  carried  on  with  the  Orient, 
and  the  taste  acquired  by  returning  pilgrims  from  the  Holy 
Land,  a  strong  Byzantine  inflii  ^^  was  brought  to  bear  on 
the  construction,  and  it  pres^i'*-" a  domical  design. 

The  plan,  Fig.  37  (£),  was  undoubtedly  patterned  after 
St.  Mark's  Church,  at  Venice,  but  the  domes  over  the  arms 
and  crossing  are  all  of  one  size  and  are  surmounted  with 
lanterns  as  shown  in  Fig.  36.  Unlike  St.  Mark's,  however, 
the  interior,  Fig.  38,  is  extremely  plain.  No  Oriental  marbles 
embellish  the  walls  here,  nor  do  elaborate  mosaics  incrust 


50  ARCHITECTURE  AXI)  ORNAMENT  205 


FIG   38 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


207 


the  dome  soffits;  but  simple  and  imposing  construction  gives 
scale  to  the  interior  and  an  expression  of  grandeur  equal  to 
that  attained  by  its  more  elaborate  prototype.  Fig.  38 
shows  clearly  the  great  rectangular  piers,  pierced  in  two 
directions  with  passages  and  supporting  the  pendentives 
above,  which  are  crowned  with  the  great  hemispherical 
dome.  Compare  Fig.  38  with  Fig.  37  (a),  Fig.  10,  and 
Fig.  2. 

89.  Cliurcli  of  St.  Croix. — Not  far  from  Perigueux, 
on  the  western  coast  of  France,  is  the  city  of  Bordeaux,  in 
which  is  located  the  church  of  St.  Croix,  Fig.  39.  This 


edifice  was  originally  founded  in  about  the  7th  century,  but 
it  was  rebuilt  in  the  10th  century  and  has  been  restored 
several  times  since.  The  fagade  is  characteristically  Roman- 
esque with  its  blind  arcades  and  recessed  portals,  and 
elaborate  sculptured  figures  fill  numerous  niches.  Most  of 
this  sculpture  has  fallen  into  decay,  however,  and  the  only 


208 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


recognizable  details  are  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  under  the 
arch  of  the  central  gable,  and  a  statue  of  a  knight  slaying  a 
dragon,  in  a  niche  over  the  side  portal.  Superposed 
columns  supporting  arches  are  used  here,  but  there  is  no 
suggestion  of  an  imitation  of  classic  design.  There  are  sill 
courses  marking  the  stories,  but  no  entablatures  are  placed 

1 


over  the  columns.  Columns  are  clustered  in  groups  of  two 
or  three  or  more — not  according  to  any  classic  rules,  but  to 
suit  the  conditions  arising  in  each  case. 

90.  Cliurcli  of  Notre  Dame  le  Grande. — In  Fig.  40 
is  shown  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  le  Grande,  at  Poitiers. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  Romanesque  edifices 
of  Central  France,  and  was  built  in  the  12th  century,  when 


FIG.  41 


210 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


external   sculpture   and  internal  mural  decoration  were  the 
prevailing    means    of    attaining     architectural    expression. 
The  western  fagade  of  this  structure  is  richly  sculptured 
ABBAYE  AUX  HOMMES 


CHURCH 

OF  THE 

APOSTLES 


CATHEDRAL 


X'     *~>X-''      ^'      X   '  V'  '  ^<    '    vx'    i*~*jf'''1'V'''' 
JX  \  kf '  V'*!i '''  \i''x  ^\'/'  v^i'''  x^  i /'  \  I'C/"*^'' v 


with  surface  ornament,  as  well  as  with  statues  of  saints, 
kings,  bishops,  and  other  symbolic  effigies.  Though  not 
Ihe  largest,  this  church  is  probably  the  most  interesting  one 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  211 

in  the  province,  as  it  surpasses  every  other  structure  in  the 
richness  of  its  decoration.  The  central  window  was  origi- 
nally circular,  but  in  the  15th  century  it  was  cut  down  to 
give  more  area  for  stained  glass. 

91.  Ablmye  Aux  Homines. — The  Abbaye  aux  Hom- 
ines, Fig.  41,  at  Caen,  was  commenced  in  1066  by  William 
the  Conqueror.  The  plan  originally  had  an  eastern  apse,  but 
this  was  altered  to  the  semicircular  chevet  termination  so  char- 
acteristic of  the  French  style  [see  Fig.  42  (a)].  The  chevet 
consists  of  a  continuation  of  the  aisles  ajound  the  east  end  of 
the  nave,  so  as  to  form  an  ambulatory  or  passageway  for  the 
religious  processions  that  were  introduced  into  the  church 
ritual  about  this  time. 

ANALYTICAL,    STUDY 


PLANS 

92.  The  plans  in  the  south  were  broad  and  open  with 
internal  buttresses,  between  which  chapels  were  arranged, 
while  in  the  north  they  were  more  like  the  basilica,  with 
external  buttresses  to  receive  the  thrust  of  the  roof  vaults. 


WALLS 

93.  The    walls    were    massive    constructions    of    rubble 
with  a  facing  of  fine  ashlar.     The  doorways  were  elaborate, 
but  the  rest  of  the  fagade  was  left  in  the  simplest  possible 
form.     Imposing  western  entrances  are  characteristic  of  this 
style.     The  buttresses  have  only  very  slight  projection,  and 
flying    buttresses   were   introduced   in   the   last  half   of    the 
12th  century.     The  towers  were  mostly  square  with  pyram- 
idal roofs. 

ROOFS 

94.  In  the  south,  the  roofs  consisted  of  a  barrel  vault 
over  the  nave  with  half  vaults  over  the  aisles,  which,  being 
two  stories  in  height,  would  not  admit  the  introduction  of  a 


212  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

clearstory.  In  the  north,  an  increased  clearstory  was 
characteristic,  owing  to  the  use  of  intersecting  vaults  in  the 
nave  and  grouped  windows  in  the  spandrels.  The  groin 
ribs  of  the  nave  vaults  were  maintained  by  buttressed  arches 
under  the  aisle  roofs,  which  received  their  thrusts. 


COLUMNS 

95.  In  the  naves,  square  piers  with  half-round  columns 
attached  to  their  faces  supported  the  groin  ribs;  or  columns, 
with  capitals  suggestive  of  Corinthian  style,  received  the 
groin  ribs  rather  clumsily  on  the  abacus. 


OPENINGS 

96.  In  the  south,  the  openings  were  narrow,  with  wide 
splay  of  the  jambs,  and  the  clearstory  was  usually  omitted. 
In  the  north  the  openings  were  grouped  in  series  of  three 
and  five  narrow  windows,  to  fill  the  spandrel  of  the  vaults  in 
the  clearstories.  Portals  were  extremely  ornate. 


MOLDINGS 

97.  Moldings  in  the  south  are  neat  and  refined,  due  to 
classic  influence,  but  in  the  north,  they  are  crude  devices  cut 
with  an  ax  on  the  structural  details.     Corbel  tables  supported 
by  either  grotesque  heads  or  plain  blocks  form  the  cornices 
along  the  main  walls.         

ORNAMENT 

98.  Painted    glass    did  not   enter   into    the   designs    in 
Southern  France,  as  the  windows  were   small  and  narrow 
and  thus  did  not  favor  its  display;  but  its  use  was  gradually 
developed  for  the  large  openings  in  the  northern  buildings. 
The  northern  buildings  presented  much  decorative  diaper 
treatment  in  the  spandrels  of  the  arches  that  probably  arose 
from  an  attempt  to  imitate  in  carving  the  color  patterns  of 
draperies    that    originally    occupied    the    same     positions. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  213 


GERMAN    ROMANESQUE 

INFLUENCES 

99.  Geographical. — During    the   days   of    the    Roman 
Empire,   cities   had   been   established   on   the   banks   of   the 
Rhine  and  to  the  south  of  it,  and,  when  Christianity  spread 
over  Europe,  these  parts  were   affected  first,  while,  in  the 
north  and  east,  paganism  still  flourished  (see  Fig.  43). 

100.  Geological. — Stone  was  abundant  along  the  Rhine, 
but  in  the  northern  plains  there  was  none.     Consequently, 
the  character  of  the  buildings  in  these  two  districts  varied 
accordingly. 

101.  Climatic. — Germany   is    subject    to    extremes   of 
climate.     In   winter  there   is  much  snow   for   four   months, 
and  in  summer  the  weather  is  decidedly  warm,  though  not 
excessively  hot. 

102.  Religions. — Charlemagne    being    a    strong    sup- 
porter of   Christianity,    forced  his  religion   on   the    Saxons. 
The  conversion  of   the  barbaric  tribes  made   the  ceremony 
of  baptism  one  of  great  importance. 

103.  Political   and  Historical. — After  the  death   of 
Charlemagne  (814  A.  D.)  the  portion  of  his  empire  that  fell 
to  Lewis  (see  Fig.  26)  became  one  of  the  three  great  sub- 
divisions.    The  chief  power  in  the  country  gradually  became 
vested  in  the  great  dukes  and  lords,  just  as  had  been  the 
condition  in   France.     In  911  A.  D.,  the  last  descendant  of 
Charlemagne  died,  and  as  there  was  no  satisfactory  heir  to 
the  throne,  five  of  the  great  dukes  got  together  and  elected 
Conrad,  Duke  of  Franconia,  as  their  king.     Thus  Germany 
began   as   an  elective   kingdom.     On  the  death  of  Conrad, 
a  Saxon  duke  named  Henry  was  elected  king,  and  he  was 


214 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


the  first  of  five  Saxon  kings  under  whose  reigns  Germany 
was  to  become  the  greatest  power  in  Europe.  Otho,  suc- 
cessor of  Henry,  extended  the  boundary  of  the  German 
Empire  southwards  to  include  Lombardy.  After  the  sub- 
division of  Charlemagne's  dominion  the  Roman  Empire 
ceased  to  exist,  but  with  the  establishment  of  the  temporal 
power  of  the  church,  it  was  desired  that  the  church  should 
extend  its  influence  and  power  over  as  wide  a  domain  as 


FIG.  43 


possible.  Otho  being  an  ardent  churchman,  as  well  as  an 
ambitious  sovereign,  acquiesced  in  this  idea,  and  in  962  A.  D. 
he  was  crowned  at  Rome  as  emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  of  the  West.  Thus,  a  portion  of  the  divided  empire 
of  Charlemagne  became  united.  From  this  time  on  each 
German  emperor  received  three  coronations — as  king  of 
Germany,  as  king  of  Italy,  and  as  emperor  of  the  West. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  215 


CHARACTERISTICS 

104.  The  general  style  of  German  Romanesque  archi- 
tecture is  similar  to  that  of  Northern  Italy,  and  though  the 
Rhine  districts  present  the  best  examples,  there  are  fewer 
local  characteristics  than  are  found  in  France.  Numerous 
circular  and  octagonal  turrets  with  arcaded  galleries  under 
the  eaves  characterize  the  style.  The  church  plans  show  no 
western  entrances,  but  present  apses  instead,  Fig.  42  (b) 
and  (<:).  The  doorways  are  richly  ornamented,  and  the 
capitals  of  the  columns  are  bold  in  execution  and  unique 
in  design.  Vaulting  appears  about  50  years  later  than  in 
France,  and  was  first  adopted  in  the  provinces  along  the 
Rhine.  The  round-arched  style,  similar  to  that  of  Lom- 
bardy,  lasted  in  Germany  until  about  1268  A.  D. 


EXAMPLES 

105.  Church  of  the  Apostles. — The  church  of  the 
Apostles,  at  Cologne,  Fig.  44,  is  only  one  of  several  in  that 
city  that  presents  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  German 
Romanesque  style.  The  eastern  end  is  carried  out  in  three 
apses  that  open  from  three  sides  of  the  nave  and  are  crowned 
by  a  low,  octagonal  tower,  Fig.  42  (b}.  The  exterior  is 
richly  treated,  and  presents  arcaded  subdivisions  crowned 
by  a  characteristic  arcade  of  small  arches  under  the  eaves 
of  the  roof.  The  existence  of  these  small  arcades  under 
the  eaves  of  the  structures  in  Germany  and  Lombardy  is 
interesting,  inasmuch  as  they  are  based  on  a  structural 
condition.  The  buildings  not  being  vaulted  in  these 
countries,  there  was  no  thrust  on  the  upper  walls;  conse- 
quently, a  light  form  of  construction  was  permissible  here 
for  the  purpose  of  supporting  the  beams  of  the  roof. 

The  walls  had  simply  to  support  the  superimposed  load  of 
the  roof  and  roof  trusses  and  did  not  have  to  withstand  a 
horizontal  thrust  from  vaults.  There  were  therefore  no 
flying  buttresses  over  the  aisles  although  fixed  buttresses 
were  necessary  to  support  the  aisle  vaults. 


Fro.  44 


FIG.  46 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  219 

106.  Cathedral  at   Worms. — The  Worms   Cathedral, 
Fig.  45  (also  those  of  Speyer,  Mentz,  and  Treves),  is  a  char- 
acteristic structure  of  this  period.     On  each  side  of  the  east- 
ern and  the  western  apse  stand  circular  towers,  while  a  low, 
octagonal  tower  marks  the  intersection  of  the  nave  and  the 
transept.     The   walls   are  pierced  with   semicircular-headed 
windows  that  are  flanked  by  small  pilaster  buttresses,  and 
the  entrance  doors  are  at  the  sides,  as  is  characteristic  of 
many  of  the  German  churches   [see  the  plans,  Fig.  42  (b) 
and  (<:)]. 

The  interior  of  Worms  Cathedral,  Fig.  46,  shows  the  char- 
acteristic German  Romanesque  arrangement.  Semicircular 
ribs  laid  up  in  small  cut  arch  stones  extend  diagonally  from 
one  corner  of  a  bay  to  another,  while  the  transverse  ribs  in 
slightly  pointed  arches  separate  the  bays  from  one  another. 
The  nave  wall  is  supported  by  rectangular  piers,  on  every 
other  one  of  which  a  semicylindrical  shaft  rises  to  the  clear- 
story to  receive  the  vault  ribs.  Two  arches  of  the  aisle 
vaults  are  included  under  each  bay  of  the  nave  vaults. 

107.  Cathedral    at   Speyer. — The    Speyer   Cathedral, 
Fig.  47,  presents  square  towers  where  those  of  the  Worms 
Cathedral  are  round,  while  a  light  arcade  under  the  eaves 
of  the  roof  indicates  the  absence  of  vaulting,  as  in  the  Italian 
Romanesque. 

108.  Cathedral    at    Bonn. — The    cathedral    at    Bonn, 
Fig.  48,  introduces  an  octagonal  tower  of  two  stories  with  a 
tall  spire  over  the  intersection  of  the  nave,  but  otherwise  it 
presents  practically  the   same   features   as   the  cathedral  at 
Speyer. 

109.  All  of  these  great  churches  are  noteworthy  for  their 
picturesque  grouping  of  external  details  and  the  successful 
combination  of  large  and  small  turrets  in  one  composition. 
The  characteristic  use  of  arcades  in  the  exterior  walls  and 
the   open   arcades    under    the   eaves    render    these    German 
examples  unique  among  the  Romanesque  structures  in  other 
countries,  although  the  system  of  design  was  undoubtedly 
derived  from  the  churches  of  Northern   Italy. 


220 


221 


FIG.  48 


222  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


ANALYTICAL   STUDY 


PLANS 

110.  In  the  German  Romanesque  style,  the  naves  and 
aisles  were  vaulted  over  square  bays,  one  bay  of  the  nave 
receiving  two  from  the  aisles,  as  the  latter  were  usually  half 
the  width  of  the  nave.     The  choir  ended  in  an  apse,  and  was 
always  raised  over  a  crypt,   as   in    Lombardy.     Transepts 
were  introduced  at  the  west  end  as  well  as  at  the   east, 
detracting  somewhat  from  the  cruciform  plan,  but  they  were 
nearly  always  crowned  with  low,  octagonal  towers.     Numer- 
ous square  or  cylindrical  towers  added  to  the  exterior  effect. 
These  towers  are  generally  constructed  in  successive  stories 
and  finished  under  four  gables  and  a  steep,  pyramidal  roof, 
the  hip  rafters  rising  from  the  ridge  of  the  gables,  as  in 
Fig.  48,  and  sometimes  from  the  valleys  between  them  as 
well,  as  in  Fig.  47.  

WALLS 

111.  The  walls  present  open  arcades  under  the  eaves 
and    string   courses,    or   cornices    consisting    of   horizontal 
arcades,  resting  on  corbels.     There  is  always  a  clearstory  and 
occasionally  a  triforium,  or  open  space,  between  the  clearstory 
and  aisle  vaults. 

ROOFS 

112.  Along  the  Rhine,  barrel  vaults  covered  the  nave, 
and  half  vaults  extended  from  the  walls  over  the  aisles  to 
the  base  of  the  nave  vault.    Where  the  spans  were  excessive, 
timber  trusses  were  used.    Characteristic  gabled  and  pyrami- 
dal roofs  covered  the  towers,  as  heretofore  described. 


COLUMNS 

113.  Square  piers  with  half  columns  attached  were  used 
in  the  nave,  and  in  many  churches  a  characteristic  arrange- 
ment consisted  of  alternate  piers  and  columns.  The  capitals 
are  boldly  executed  and  designed  with  care  and  intelligence. 


50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


223 


OPENINGS 


114.     The  openings  are  usually  single,  but  occasionally 
they  are  subdivided  by  mullions,  as  in  Fig.  49  (a),  which 


(a) 


FIG. 49 


shows   an   example   from    the    Laach  Abbey   Church.     The 
doors  are  placed  at  the  sides  and  rarely  at  the  ends. 


224  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


MOLDINGS 

115.  The  moldings  are  of  little  importance  and  form  no 
characteristic  part  of  the  style.  The  bases  of  the  columns, 
however,  show  a  divergence  from  the  classic  proportions, 
and  suggest  ideas  that  develop  in  a  later  style. 


ORNAMENT 

116.  The  flat,  plain  surfaces  on  the  interior  walls  were 
sometimes  frescoed  in  colored  designs  that  expressed  the 
ideas  set  forth  in  the  early  Christian  and  Byzantine  decora- 
tions.    In  the  northern  part  of  Germany,  colored  bricks  and 
tiles  were  used,  but  being  unsuitable   for   rich  decoration 
there  is  an  absence  of  sculptured  foliage. 

The  arches  of  the  portals,  when  of  stone,  were  richly  carved, 
as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  49  (c) ,  which  is  an  example  from  the 
Worms  Cathedral,  as  are  also  the  capital  and  base  shown 
in  (b} .  The  introduction  of  a  leaf  form  on  the  corners  of 
the  plinth,  to  fill  the  triangular  space  caused  by  the  moldings 
at  the  base,  is  characteristic  of  this  period.  Fig.  50  (/). 

117.  In  Fig.  50  (c)  is  shown  a  13th-century  capital  from 
Southern  Germany,  the  treatment  of  the  foliage  on  which  is 
extremely  simple  and  thoroughly  pleasing.     It  is  lighter  than 
either  the  French  or  Italian  examples  shown  at  (a)  and  (<?), 
respectively,    and   its   conventional   foliage   seems   to   grow 
from  the  top  of  the  shaft.     The  base  at  (/)  is  also  German, 
but  differs  only  slightly  from  the  French  bases  at  (b)  and  (d). 

118.  The   running   ornament    illustrated  in   Fig.   51   is 
carved  in  high  relief.     The  example  at  (a)  was  taken  from 
Southern    Germany,    and    is    much    heavier    in    detail    than 
the  French  example  at  (b).    The  pyramid  forms  shown  on  the 
main  stem  of  the  ornament  at  (c)  are  characteristic  of  the 
Romanesque  style,  and  are  found  at  this  period  throughout 
Western  Europe.     The  band  shown  at  (d)  is  a  trifle  more 
intricate    than    the  others,    but    presents    the    same    simple 
elements  as  the  example  shown  at  (")• 


•• 


/I 


225 
I  L  T  303—16 


(a) 


(6) 


(c) 


(d) 
FIG.  51 


226 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  227 


THE  CRUSADES 

(1096  A.  D.  TO  1270  A.  D.) 

119.  During  the  two  hundred  years  comprising  the  12th 
and  13th  centuries,  the  most  important  developments  in 
European  history  were  affected  by  a  series  of  extraordinary 
expeditions  known  as  the  crusades,  a  word  of  French  deri- 
vation meaning  "wars  of  the  cross."  Since  the  latter  part  of 
the  7th  century,  Syria  and  Palestine  had  been  in  the  hands 
of  the  Saracens  and  Turks,  both  of  whom  were  Moham- 
medans. It  had  long  been  the  practice  for  ardent  Christians 
to  make  pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem,  and  while  the  Saracens 
remained  masters  of  the  Holy  Land  these  pilgrims  were 
cordially  received,  as  a  considerable  amount  of  revenue  and 
trade  was  thus  brought  to  that  country. 

In  the  middle  of  the  llth  century,  however,  the  Seljukian 
Turks  became  rulers  of  Syria  and  subjected  the  Christians  to 
the  cruelest  persecutions.  Returning  pilgrims  told  sickening 
stories  of  insults  and  degradations  that  had  been  heaped 
on  them  by  the  "infidels,"  and  a  spontaneous  desire  arose 
throughout  Europe  to  exterminate  the  Mohammedans,  and 
rescue  the  Holy  Land  from  their  domination.  A  French 
monk,  Peter  the  Hermit,  born  at  Amiens,  was  a  victim  of 
some  of  these  Moslem  cruelties,  and  believing  that  he  was 
inspired  by  heaven  to  deliver  Jerusalem,  he  laid  the  project 
of  the  first  crusade  before  Pope  Urban  II.  Encouraged  by 
the  pope,  Peter  traveled  over  Europe  and  preached  that  it 
was  the  sacred  duty  of  all  Christians  to  deliver  the  Sepulcher 
of  Christ  from  the  infidels.  As  a  result,  a  great  multitude 
from  all  parts  of  Europe  assembled,  on  call  from  the  pope, 
at  Clermont,  France,  in  1095  A.  D.  Unfortunately,  in  their 
enthusiasm,  they  were  carried  away  by  the  eloquence  of 
Peter  and  urged  him,  as  the  original  preacher  of  the  sacred 
enterprise,  to  assume  its  command,  and,  not  knowing  his 


228 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


utter  unfitness   for  military  command,   Peter  accepted  the 
charge. 

120.  First  Crusade— 1O96  to  1O99.— In  August,  1096 
A.  D.,  an  unorganized  army  of  over  250,000  men  started  as 
an  advance  guard  on  a  march  through  Germany,  Hungary, 
Bulgaria,  and  Thrace  (see  Fig.  52).  This  army  expected  to 
live  by  forage  and  conscription  as  it  proceeded,  but  its  law- 
less acts  and  devastations  so  enraged  the  Hungarian  peas- 
antry that  they  attacked  the  crusaders  and  nearly  extermi- 
nated them  before  they  reached  their  goal,  and  the  few  that 
succeeded  in  getting  across  the  Bosporus  were  immediately 


FIG.  52 


massacred  by  the  Turks, 
of  the  first  crusade. 


Such  was  the  fate  of  the  vanguard 


121.  The  chivalry  of  Europe  had  taken  no  part  in  this 
preliminary  movement,  but  now  it  prepared  to  follow  the 
vanguard.  Six  armies,  each  consisting  of  100,000  men, 
started  by  different  routes  (see  Fig.  52)  from  separate 
countries  for  Constantinople.  Here  all  the  divisions  united, 
under  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  duke  of  Lower  Lorain,  and 
100,000  mailed  cavalry,  the  flower  of  European  chivalry- 
knights,  esquires,  and  men  at  arms — marched  across  Asia 


§f)0  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  229 

Minor.  They  were  equipped  with  full  armor,  and  were 
armed  with  lance,  sword,  and  battle  ax  or  heavy  iron  mace. 
The  foot  soldiers  were  armed  with  longbows  and  crossbows, 
and  presented  a  strong  contrast  to  the  splendor  of  the 
knights  with  their  embroidered  and  ermined  surcoats, 
dazzling  shields,  and  headpieces  inlaid  with  gold  and  jewels. 
As  soon  as  they  entered  Asia  Minor,  the  sultan  of  Roum, 
with  300,000  cavalry,  attacked  them,  but  the  heavy-weaponed 
and  armored  knights  and  horses  of  the  crusaders  were  too 
much  against  the  light  weapons  and  supple  dexterity  of  the 
Asiatics.  In  a  direct  charge,  the  Turkish  cavalry  was  routed 
and  30,000  slain.  This  was  probably  the  greatest  cavalry 
battle  in  the  world's  history.  The  retreating  Turks,  how- 
ever, devastated  the  country  through  which  the  victors  had 
to  march,  and  hundreds  of  the  crusaders  died  of  famine  and 
disease  before  they  arrived  at  the  city  of  Antioch,  the  capital 
of  Syria,  to  which  they  laid  siege.  Seven  months  later  the 
crusaders  captured  the  city  and  marched  on  to  Jerusalem. 
For  five  weeks  Jerusalem  was  besieged,  but  in  July,  1099, 
Godfrey  and  his  army  entered  the  city  and  celebrated  their 
great  Christian  victory  by  the  massacre  of  70,000  Moslems 
and  the  burning  of  the  Jews  in  their  synagogues.  Thus 
ended  the  first  crusade,  and  Jerusalem  was  now  a  Christian 
kingdom  after  450  years  of  Mohammedan  rule. 

122.  Second  Crusade — 1147  to  1149. — In  1145,  the 
Turks    attacked   the    Christian    principality  of    Edessa  and 
massacred  the  inhabitants.     St.  Bernard,  abbot  of  the  mon- 
astery at  Clairaux,  preached  a  second  crusade  as  a  punishment 
to  the  infidels,  and  his  eloquence  enlisted  the  sympathies  of 
the  two  most  powerful  sovereigns  of  Europe,  Conrad  III  of 
Germany,  and  Louis  VII  of  France. 

The  two  armies,  consisting  of  over  300,000  chosen  troops, 
marched  by  the  same  route  as  the  first  crusaders  to  Con- 
stantinople, but  they  were  badly  defeated  and  returned  to 
their  homes  without  accomplishing  anything. 

123.  Third  Crusade — 1189  to  1192. — The  third  cru- 
sade was  caused  by  the  invasion  of  Palestine  by  the  Turks 


230  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

and  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  1187.  Tyre  now  remained  the 
only  Christian  settlement  in  Palestine.  The  third  crusade 
was  conducted  by  Richard  I  of  England,  Philip  Augustus  of 
France,  and  Frederick  I  of  Germany,  and  ended  in  a  truce 
with  the  Turks. 

124.  Result  of  the  Crusades. — There  were  five  later 
crusades,  but  none  of  them  achieved  any  result;  in  fact  some 
of  them  were  not  directed  toward  Jerusalem  at  all.  Although 
the  crusaders  failed  utterly  to  accomplish  their  immediate 
object — the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land  from  the  Moham- 
medans— their  effects  were  most  important  on  the  develop- 
ment of  western  civilization.  Western  nations  having  come 
to  act  together  in  a  common  cause,  became  better  acquainted, 
exchanged  chivalrous  sentiments,  and  entertained  more 
liberal  ideas.  The  returning  crusaders  brought  from  the 
East  knowledge  of  many  processes  and  products  tending  to 
promote  the  arts  and  industries  of  the  West.  These  expedi- 
tions were  the  beginning  of  international  commercial  rela- 
tions. The  Italian  maritime  states  furnished  the  crusaders 
with  transports  and  conveyed  their  troops  and  supplies,  thus 
first  establishing  the  commerce  of  the  Mediterranean.  A 
demand  for  spices,  perfumes,  and  other  articles  of  Oriental 
luxury  was  imported  into  Europe.  Trading  posts  were 
established  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  and  Greece  by 
Venice,  Genoa,  and  other  Italian  states.  Another  important 
effect  of  the  crusades  was  the  diminishing  of  the  strength  of 
the  feudal  aristocracy  through  the  division  and  sale  of  many 
feudal  properties. 

It  is  evident  that  in  the  immense  host  that  constituted 
these  armies  some  designation  other  than  a  mere  name  was 
necessary  to  distinguish  one  nobleman  from  another;  hence, 
we  find  the  introduction  of  coats  of  arms  and  distinctive 
banners,  and  finally  the  use  of  surnames,  which  had  hereto- 
fore been  unnecessary. 

From  the  llth  to  the  13th  century,  the  crusaders  returning 
from  the  Orient  introduced  new  ideas  and  aided  in  the 
foundation  of  the  great  universities.  With  the  spread  of 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  231 

education  and  enlightenment,  the  feudal  system  began  to 
decline,  and  finally,  in  1500,  when  gimpowder  was  invented, 
warfare  was  revolutionized  and  the  feudal  system  of  govern- 
ment and  defense  became  obsolete. 


REVIEW    EXERCISES 

1.  What  geographical  influences  affected  the  architecture  of  North- 
ern and  Southern  Italy? 

2.  What  important  religious  influence  affected  the  political  con- 
ditions in  Italy  during  the  early  Romanesque  period? 

3.  What  are  the  leading  characteristics  of   (a)    Northern  Italian 
Romanesque  architecture?     (b)  Southern  Italian  Romanesque? 

4.  (a)   What  are  the  characteristics  of  Romanesque  architecture  in 
the  north  and  south  of  France?     (b)   What  is  assumed  as  the  dividing 
line  between  Northern  and  Southern  France? 

5.  (a)     What  is  the  most  important  Romanesque  church  in  France? 
(b)  After  what  was  it  patterned? 

6.  (a)  What  foreign  influences  affected  the  architecture  of  Southern 
France?     (b)   How  came  these  influences  to  be  introduced? 

7.  (a)   What    are    the    characteristics    of    German    Romanesque? 
(b)  What  characteristics  were  due  to  the  proximity  of  Northern  Italy? 

8.  (a)  What  were  the  Crusades?     (b)  What  effect  did  they  have 
on  the  civilization  of  Western  Europe? 

9.  (a)  What  is  a  chevet?     (b)  Of  what  style  of  architecture  was  it 
characteristic? 

10.  In  what  way  did  the  absence  of  vaulting  affect  the  Romanesque 
style  of  Northern  Italy  and  Southern  France? 


232  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE 

(1200  A.  D.  to  1500  A.  D.) 


INTRODUCTION 

125.  An  architectural  style  is  now  reached  that,  although 
developed  by  a  process  of  evolution   from   the    structural 
systems  of  ancient  Rome,  is,  in  its  perfected  form,  entirely 
opposed  to  classic  architecture  in  principle,   purpose,   and 
design.     The    term   Gothic  has    been    applied  to  this  style 
because  it  was  developed  by  the  descendants  of  the  Goths 
that  overthrew  the  Roman  Empire  in  476  A.  D.    The  term  is 
a  misnomer,  however,  for  these  early  Goths  were  a  barbarous, 
uncultured  people,  whereas  Gothic  architecture  from  the  12th 
to  the  15th  century  was  the  embodiment  of  refinement  and 
taste  in  both  construction  and  design.     The  style  developed 
from  purely  local  conditions,  and  it  can  therefore  be  readily 
understood    that   the  more  remote   from   Rome,   the  purer 
one  finds  the  art.     For  this  reason,  Gothic  architecture  found 
it  greatest  development  in   England,  for  that  country  was 
not  only  far  to  the  north  of  Italy,  but  it  was  entirely  isolated 
from  the  Continent  by  its  surrounding  water. 

126.  At  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century,  several  of 
the  nations  of  Western  Europe  were  well  established.     The 
Western  Roman  Empire  now  had  its  center  in  Germany,  and 
the  kingdoms   of   Italy,   France,   England,  and  Spain  were 
developing  into  individual  states.     By  this  time  the  Church 
had  become  a  most  powerful  factor  in  civilization.      The 
popes  held  themselves  to  be  above  the  kings  and  emperors, 
and  therefore  dictated  much  of  the  political  policy  of  the 
various  governments. 

The  clergy,  on  account  of  their  learning,  were  consulted 
in  temporal  affairs,  and  in  this  way  received  many  individuals 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  233 

of  wealth  and  power  into  their  religious  orders.  In  Germany, 
many  of  the  abbots  and  bishops  were  royal  princes. 

The  general  forms  of  Christianity  had  varied  materially 
during  the  past  few  centuries.  The  bodies  or  portions  of 
the  bodies  of  the  saints  and  martyrs  were  honored  in  the 
churches  of  the  community  wherein  these  celebrities  had 
lived.  The  veneration  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  other  forms 
of  ritual  were  the  cause  of  some  additions  to  the  cathedral 
plans.  Lady  chapels,  for  the  devotions  to  the  Virgin,  were 
erected  in  many  of  the  religious  structures,  as  well  as  smaller 
chapels  for  the  reverence  of  various  saints  and  martyrs. 
Chantry  chapels,  where  masses  for  the  dead  were  sung, 
found  a  place  in  many  churches,  and  the  numerous  ceremonies 
requiring  processions,  etc.  made  necessary  the  introduction 
of  an  ambulatory,  where  they  could  take  place. 

Heretofore  all  important  medieval  buildings  had  been 
churches  and  abbeys,  but  now  the  growth  of  towns  and 
consequent  increase  of  wealth  led  to  municipal  rivalries  and 
the  erection  of  magnificent  secular  buildings.  In  Italy,  the 
country  became  divided  into  small  sections,  to  each  of  which 
belonged  one  or  more  of  the  larger  towns.  These  sections 
afterward  became  principalities.  In  Germany,  the  towns 
united  and  formed  leagues  for  mutual  protection  and  the 
regulation  of  trade. 

127.  The  climate  of  Northern  Europe  being  entirely 
different  from  that  of  Southern  Europe,  a  corresponding 
difference  in  architecture  must  be  expected,  but  more  than  a 
mere  difference  of  climate  is  to  be  looked  for  as  responsible 
for  the  vast  change  in  the  system  of  design. 

In  Southern  Europe  the  sun  is  high  in  the  heavens  during 
the  day;  hence,  variation  of  light  and  shadow  can  best  be 
obtained  by  low,  projecting  cornices,  string  courses,  and 
other  horizontal  details.  In  the  northern  part,  save  at  noon, 
the  sun  takes  a  low  course  through  the  sky  not  far  above 
the  horizon.  Therefore,  pinnacles,  towers,  and  vertical 
elements  are  the  details  required  to  cast  shadows  and  vary 
the  monotony  by  light  and  shade. 


234  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


CHARACTERISTICS 

128.  The  principles   of   Gothic    architecture   were    the 
same  throughout  Westerfi  Europe.     Gothic  construction  of 
the  13th  century  was  the  direct  outcome  of  the  development 
of  Romanesque  vaulting.     Its  strongest  characteristic  is  the 
persistent  application  of  the  pointed  arch.     As  has  already 
been  shown,  the  fully  developed  Gothic  vault  was  pointed, 
instead  of  semicircular  like  the  Roman  vaults,  and  as  the 
window  openings  were  in  the  bays  of  the  aisle  and  nave 
directly  under  these,  vaults,   it  is  not  surprising   that   the 
window  heads  were  made  pointed  in  order  to  conform  to 
the  vault  outlines.     The  form  once  adopted,  became  general, 
and    the   pointed    arch    was    used   everywhere   for   doors, 
windows,  arcades,  and  vaulting. 

129.  The  Gothic  masons  developed  the  scientific  use  of 
stone  as  a  building  material  beyond   anything  heretofore 
known.     They  heaped  it  up  in  towers  and  pinnacles  and 
carved  it  in  delicate  lacelike  patterns  until  the  roofs  of  their 
constructions   showed   a    veritable    forest   of   small    spires. 
They  constructed  flying  buttresses  of  it,  to  act  as  props  to 
the    thrusting    superstructure,    but   designed   to   present   a 
marvel  of  artistic  ingenuity.     They  hung  it  in  ponderous 
pendants  from  intersecting  vault  crowns,  where  a  weight  was 
necessary  to  offset  an  upward  thrust,  and  finally  they  cut  it 
in  the  thinnest  of  slabs  for  decorative  purposes  and  executed 
designs  that  were  marvels  of  construction  and  craftsmanship. 

130.  Every  wall  in  Gothic  construction  was  reinforced 
by  a  buttress,  which  was  frequently  carried  up  in  a  pinnacle 
to  give  it  more  weight  and  stability.     Every  arch  thrust  was 
counteracted  by  another  arch  thrust,  until  the  force  was  scien- 
tifically taken  up  by  buttresses  and  carried  to  terra  firma. 
Gothic  structures  consisted  of  a  skeleton  of  piers,  columns, 
groin  ribs,  buttresses,  and  flying  buttresses,  the  walls  and 
infilling  being  mere  enclosures.     The  walls  were  pierced  by 
windows  whose  subdivision  by  mullions  and  split  mullions 
resolved  itself  into  a  series  of  lacelike  effects  termed  tracery. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  235 

Tracery  itself  presents  the  solution  of  some  of  the  most 
complicated  problems  in  geometrical  construction  that  are 
known.  These  details  of  construction  required  other  special 
details  to  fit  them,  and  led  to  the  introduction  of  entirely 
new  forms  of  capitals,  columns,  moldings,  and  bases. 

131.  The  architectural  style  was  adapted  to  a  construc- 
tion of  small,  rectangular  stones  with  wide  joints,  which  was 
a  compromise  between  the  rubble  walls  of  the  Romans  and 
the  solid-block  stone  constructions  of  the  Greeks. 

The  available  stone  was  hard  and  durable  and  could  be 
split  into  small  sections,  but  there  was  neither  marble  nor 
granite  that  the  Romans  found  plentiful  in  their  domains. 
The  Gothic  architects  were  forced  to  construct  large  build- 
ings from  small  blocks  of  stone  in  contrast  to  the  small 
Greek  buildings  of  large  single  pieces.  The  vaulting,  as  has 
heretofore  been  stated,  was  developed  from  the  Romanesque, 
but  it  became  more  complicated  as  the  style  advanced,  and 
the  increase  in  the  number  and  the  variety  in  the  design  of 
ribs  that  necessarily  ensued  forms  the  most  fascinating 
detail  of  the  style. 

132.  Painted    glass    formed   an  important  detail  in  the 
style,  as  the  richly  mullioned  windows  came  to  be  regarded 
simply    as    frames    for    the   wonderful   transparent  pictures 
teaching   facts   and   details   of   Bible   history   and    dogmatic 
theory.     In  Northern  Europe,  painted  glass  was  the  principal 
form  of  decoration.     The  interiors  of  the  walls  were  kept  as 
fiat   as   possible,  and  piers   and  buttresses   existed  on  the 
outside  only. 

133.  The    medieval    cathedral    occupied   in   its   time   a 
position  similar  to  the  modern  school,  library,  museum,  and 
picture  gallery.     Education  emanated  from  the  churches,  as 
there  were  no  schools,  books,  nor  outside  teachers.     The 
sculpture    and   painted   glass   told    eloquent    stories   of    the 
creation  of  the  world,  the  redemption  of  man,  the  reward  of 
virtue,  and  the  punishment  of  vice. 

The  construction  of  these  buildings  was  not  a  matter  of  a 
few  years  nor  even  a  lifetime.  They  were  carried  on  from 


236  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

generation  to  generation,  and  many  structures  that  were 
founded  in  the  llth  and  12th  centuries  remained  unfinished 
at  the  time  of  the  Reformation  in  the  16th  century.  Thus, 
in  almost  any  one  of  them,  the  architectural  developments 
may  be  traced  over  a  period  of  four  centuries. 

134.  The  plans  of  these  structures  are  usually  Latin 
crosses,  the  short  arms  of  which,  extending  north  and  south, 
are  formed  by  the  transept  near  the  east  end,  and  a  tower 
usually   surmounts    the   crossing.      Two   rows   of   columns 
divide  the  long  arm  into  a  nave  and  two  aisles. 

The  piers  each  side  of  the  nave  are  connected  by  arches, 
over  which  the  side  walls  extend  to  the  roof  vault.  The 
roof  over  the  aisles  reaches  half  way  up  these  nave  side  walls, 
and  the  space  between  the  aisle  vaults  and  the  roof  over 
them  is  called  the  triforium,  or  blind  story  (see  Fig.  62), 
while  the  wall  of  the  nave  above  the  aisle  roofs  is  termed 
the  clearstory,  as  it  is  pierced  with  windows  to  light  the  nave. 
Variations  of  these  conditions  characterize  the  cathedrals  of 
different  countries  and  individual  buildings,  but  the  general 
distribution  in  all  cases  is  the  same  as  just  stated. 

135.  Besides   the  cathedrals  and  churches,  there  were 
the  monasteries  erected  by  the  various  religious  orders  for 
the  education  of  novices  in  theology  and  probationary  stu- 
dents in  art,  music,  architecture,  etc.     Each  of  these  relig- 
ious orders  was  devoted  to  some  one  pursuit.     The  Augus- 
tinian  monks  favored  preaching  and  theology.     The  Friars 
were  missionaries.     The  Benedictine  monks  were  the  most 
learned,   and   to    them   is  due  the  preservation  of   history 
through  the  dark  ages.     They  taught  illuminating  and  exe- 
cution of  manuscripts,  for  there  were  no  printing  presses 
in  those  days.     The  Cistercian  monk  was  the  friend  of  the 
poor,  encouraging  agriculture  and  industrial  pursuits,  and 
the  Cluniac  monk  was  the  student  and  artist.     A  complete 
monastery  included  in  its  buildings  a  church,  a  chapter  house, 
a  sacristy,  a  dormitory,  a  capacious  cellar  for  the  storage  of 
wines,  beer,  and  oil,  a  refectory,  or  dining  room,  a  kitchen, 
a  lavatory,  granaries,  outbuildings,  etc. 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  237 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC 


INFLUENCES 

136.  Geographical. — England  as  an  island  with  many 
bays  and  harbors  was  naturally  a  great  commercial  country 
(see  Fig.  53).     Her  isolation  assisted  in  the  development 
of  prominent  national  characteristics  in  her  people,  among 
the  most  important   of  which  was  the  habit  of    travel  in 
foreign  countries.     Thus,   while  her  ships  imported  stone 
and  other  building  material  from  foreign  lands,  her  citizens 
acquired    foreign    ideas    that    influenced    her    architectural 
development  without  causing  it  to  become  a  servile  copy. 
Owing  to  her  isolation  and  northerly  position,  England  was 
less  affected  by  Roman  art  than  any  of  the  other  Christian 
countries;  hence,  the  new  architectural  style  developed  with 
great  purity. 

137.  Geological. — The    varieties     of    building    stone 
throughout  the  island  affected  the  style  locally  during  the 
early  period,   but  as  roads  were  improved  and  means  of 
transportation  became  perfected,  stone  from  all  parts  was 
imported  where  required.     During  the  middle  ages,  stone 
was  imported  from  Normandy  in  ships,  as  this  was  easier 
than  conveying  it  by  horses  from  remote  parts  of  the  island. 
Brick  was  also  largely  used  in  some  communities,  as  were 
also  terra  cotta  and  soft  limestone.     In  the  forest  districts, 
buildings  were  erected  of  wood,  and  many  with  an  open- 
timber  construction  of  part  wood  and  part  brick  or  stone. 

138.  Climatic. — The  climate,  though  cool,   does  not 
admit  of  heavy  frosts,  and  building  can  be  carried  on  through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  year.    But  cold,  high  winds  accom- 
panied by  fog  and  rain  necessitate  due  protection  against 


238 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


these  elements.  Consequently,  throughout  England  are 
found  small  entrances  protected  by  deep  porches,  to  exclude 
the  weather. 

139.     Religious. — By  the  end  of  the  10th  century,  the 
greater  part  of  Europe   had    embraced    Christianity.     The 


Map  of 
ENGLAND 

Showing  the 
CATHEDRAL.  TOWNS 


J^terbojoug 
•Warwick  /    / *E'y 


FIG.  53 


power  of  the  Church,  with  its  head  at  Rome,  had  so  grown 
that  the  popes  had  in  several  instances  overruled  the  civic 
authority  of  the  kings.  Attempts  to  establish  in  England  an 
independence  of  Church  influences  had  been  repeatedly  made 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  239 

and  failed,  but  the  efforts  did  not  take  an  extreme  character 
until  after  the  Gothic  period. 

The  different  religious  orders  had  come  into  existence  and 
were  well  established,  their  monasteries  and  other  build- 
ings exhibiting  strong  points  of  difference.  Many  of  the 
English  cathedrals  were  built  over  the  foundations  of  old 
monasteries,  which  caused  various  irregularities  of  plan  that 
are  not  observable  in  the  continental  cathedrals. 

140.  Political  and  Historical. — Rome  withdrew  her 
army  from  England  about  the  year  420  and  left  the  Britons 
to    shift    for    themselves.     In    450,    Teutonic    tribes    from 
Northern  Germany  invaded  Britain  and  drove  out  the  native 
Britons   or   enslaved   them.     These   barbarous   tribes  cared 
nothing  for  the  Roman  arts  or  language,  and  unlike  the  Franks 
and  Goths,  they  did  not  adopt  the  religion  and  language. 

The  migration  of  these  Teutonic  tribes  continued  until  the 
end  of  the  6th  century,  so  at  that  time  what  had  been  a 
Christian  province  of  Rome  became  the  heathen  land  of  the 
Angles  and  Saxons.  At  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century, 
Augustine,  a  Roman  missionary,  arrived  in  England  and 
converted  the  Anglo-Saxons  to  Christianity,  and,  finally,  in 
the  early  part  of  the  9th  century,  the  country  became  a  united 
Christian  kingdom  under  the  Saxon  King  Egbert,  a  contem- 
porary and  friend  of  Charlemagne.  The  country  was  then 
called  England  (land  of  the  Angles). 

In  1066,  William,  Duke  of  Normandy  (see  Art.  85), 
crossed  the  English  Channel,  conquered  the  country,  and 
caused  a  complete  revolution  in  the  manners  and  customs  of 
the  people  by  introducing  from  France  the  system  of  feudal 
government.  

CHARACTERISTICS 

141.  The  development  of  Gothic  architecture  in  England 
is  freer  from  foreign  influences   than  in  any  other  part  of 
Europe.     It  can  be  divided  into  four  general  periods,  inclu- 
ding the  late  Romanesque,  as  follows:  Norman  or  Roman- 
esque, Early  English,  Decorated,  and  Perpendicular. 


240  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

Preceding  all  of  this  there  was  an  Anglo-Saxon  style  of 
English  architecture  that  existed  from  the  middle  of  the  5th 
to  the  middle  of  the  llth  century  (450  to  1066  A.  D.).  The 
buildings  of  this  period  were  sometimes  composed  of  frag- 
ments or  were  rude  copies  of  Roman  architecture  executed 
largely  in  timber  construction,  and  are  of  importance  here 
only  as  a  suggestion  of  the  origin  of  much  of  the  timber 
construction  in  the  later  Gothic  styles  in  England. 

142.  The  leading  characteristic  of  each  period  of  the 
English  Gothic  style  lies  in  the  system  of  vaulting  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  ribs  over  the  soffits  of  the  vault.     Therefore, 
careful  attention  should  be  given  to  this  detail.     The  evolu- 
tion of  the  medieval  vault   from   the  Roman    system  has 
heretofore  been  discussed.      Briefly,  the  Romans  designed 
their  vaults  to  fit  the  plan  space  to  be  covered  without  regard 
to  the  groins  or  intersections,  which  were  left  to  take  care  of 
themselves.     The  medieval  builders  laid  out  the  groin  ribs 
first  and  then  built  the  vault  over  them.     Their  problem  was 
to  cover  with  stone  the  nave  of  a  church  of  the  basilican  plan 
and  at  the  same  time  provide  means  of  lighting  the  interior. 
The  stone  vault  rendered  the  structure  comparatively  safe 
against  fire,  and  a  wooden  roof  was  constructed  above  the 
stone  vault,  to  keep  out  the  weather.     Now,  from  the  Roman- 
esque vaulting  in  the  12th  century,  each  successive  period  is 
marked  by  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  vault  ribs. 

143.  Norman  Vaulting  ( 12th  Century) . — The  vault- 
ing in  England  during  the  12th  century  corresponded  to  the 
late  Romanesque  on  the  Continent,  but  varied  from  it  some- 
what owing  to  its  remoteness  from  Rome.    The  semicircular 
diagonal  rib  was  used  largely  with  stilted  arches  at  the  spring- 
ing of  the  transverse  or  longitudinal  arches,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  54  (a).     The  introduction  of  the  pointed  arch  improved 
matters  greatly,  but  even  then  semicircular  ribs  were  used 
for  the  diagonals.      Norman  vaults  and  arches  were  semi- 
circular, as  may  be  seen  in  Peterborough  Cathedral,  Fig.  63, 
and  were  groined  over  square  bays  or  over  oblong  bays,  with 
the  narrower  arch  stilted,  or  later  on  pointed. 


241 

I  LT  303—17 


FIG.  54 


242 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


144.     Early  English  Vaulting  ( 13th  Century) . — The 

Early  English  vaulting  surmounted  all  the  difficulties  of  dif- 
ference in   span  by  using   the  pointed  arch  over  all  plan 

arrangements  and  semi- 
circular ribs  for  the 
groins.  The  ribs  of  all 
vaults  were  designed 
and  built  first,  and  then 
the  surfaces  between 
them  were  filled  in  with 
severies*  or  infilling,  as 
shown  at  d  in  Fig.  55. 
The  surfaces  of  these 
severies  were  seldom 
plain  curves,  but  usu- 
ally winding  or  warped 
FlG-  &  surfaces  so  constructed 

that    their    weight    and    thrust    were    directed    toward    the 
pier    supporting    the    ribs    and    not    toward    the    wall   ribs 

5 


V-    — 

^       ^^ 

\                       X* 

VN           x 

^'^ 

x'\ 

xX             \ 
V.           -i          \ 

*  rx" 

i\\*r\    /fy//\\   /•/ 
j\\  ^'//  \\  V/ 

45$fc  >'  ^' 

i  /    \  v     Y  ft\** 

iirn^- 


FIG.  56 


I  / 


}^""/i  'v>-^.  •-,.    '-^j 

C\x/  VvVxx'/ 

-•  **-/*>•     \        i     ^^x^-X     ^ 

^  ^*^     ^    ^       1**        "^       ^«     ^S  ^  I 


themselves.     The    vaults    were    quadripartite,    as    the    ribs 
divided  them  into  four  parts  as  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  56  (b) 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


243 


and  in  perspective  in  Fig.  54  (/>)•  Later  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury, extra  ribs  were  introduced  into  the  vaults  between 
the  transverse  and  diagonal  ribs  as  at  eg,  ag,  c/t,  a/i,  etc., 
Fig.  56  (c).  These  ribs  increased  the  strength  of  the 
vaulting  by  reducing  the  area  of  the  surfaces  to  be 
"filled  in,"  and  ridge  ribs  ef  and  j  k,  Fig.  56  (c) ,  were  then 
introduced  to  take  up  the  thrust  of  these  intermediates,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  54  (c).  Owing1  to  the  increase  in  number 
of  ribs  they  became  lighter  in  section  and  were  richly 
molded  with  carved 
bosses,  or  buttons,  at 
their  points  of  inter- 
section. 

145.  Decorated 
Vaulting  (I4tli 
Century). — A  fur- 
ther elaboration  of 
the  system  of  vault 
ribs  marked  the  de- 
velopment of  vault- 
ing in  the  14th  cen- 
tury, until  the  surface 
of  the  vaults  pre- 
sented a  very  com- 
plicated appearance, 
although  the  con- 
struction was  still 
very  simple.  A  new 
set  of  ribs,  lying  entirely  in  the  vault  soffit  and  not  springing 
from  the  piers,  now  makes  its  appearance,  and  short,  little 
ribs  extend  from  the  intermediates  to  the  ridge  ribs,  as 
at  hj,  hk,  and  eg,  Fig.  56  (/).  This  is  called  licrne  •vaulting, 
and  presents  the  appearance  shown  in  Fig.  54  (d). 

This  progressive  elaboration  of  the  vaulting  ribs  increased 
until  the  spaces  between  the  ribs  became  so  small  that  each 
could  be  spanned  by  a  single  stone,  giving  to  the  system 
the  name  of  rib-aucl-paiiel  A-aultiiig;  while,  owing  to  the 


FIG.  57 


FIG.  58 


244 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


245 


form  of  the  plan,  the  designs  are  frequently  termed  -stellar 
•vaulting  (see  Fig.  57).  Stellar  and  lierne  vaulting  com- 
bined is  shown  in  Fig.  54  (e)  and  in  plan  in  Fig.  56  (<?), 
while  Fig.  56  (d)  shows  a  diagram  of  the  plan  of  Fig.  57. 

146.     Perpendicular  Vaulting  ( 15th  Century ). — The 

development  of  the  plan  of  the  stellar  designs  of  vaulting 
brought  about  an  entirely  different  arrangement  known  as 
fan  vaulting.  In  this  style  the  vault  ribs  radiate  from  the 
top  of  the  pier,  or  shaft,  and  spread  out  fanlike  in  the  form 
of  an  inverted  cone,  as  shown  in  Fig.  58.  These  spreading 


f 


FIG.  59 

ribs  were  connected  at  intervals  by  short  ribs,  and  the  crown 
of  the  vault  between  these  inverted  cones  became  a  flat  sur- 
face to  be  filled  in,  as  shown  in  Fig.  54  (/)  and  56  (g]. 

With  this  complication  in  design  came  a  change  in  con- 
struction. The  ribs  were  now  so  numerous  and  the  spaces 
between  them  so  small  that  it  seemed  useless  to  consider 
them  separately.  Consequently,  toward  the  end  of  the  Per- 
pendicular period  the  walls  were  laid  up  and  arched  over  in 
jointed  masonry,  and  when  the  mortar  was  set  and  dry  the 
ribs  and  panels  were  carved  on  the  face  of  the  vault  soffits 
(see  Figs.  59  and  60).  The  structural  character  of  the  ribs 


FIG.  60 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


247 


ceased,  and  the  ribs  came  into  existence  purely  as  ornament 
— ornament  that  was  unarchitectural,  as  it  asserted  itself  to 
be  a  part  of  the  construction  whereas  in  reality  it  was  not. 
The  ribs  no  longer  had  any  architectural  significance;  they 
were  simply  decorations  on  the  surface  of  the  vault. 

147,  Timber  Hoofs. — As  already  mentioned,  over  the 
vaulted  naves  of  the  churches,  timber  roofs  were  constructed 
to  protect  the  structure  from  the  weather,  and  in  other  build- 


FIG.  61 

ings  that  were  not  vaulted,  these  roofs  partook  of  consider- 
able elaboration  in  construction  and  variety  of  design. 
Open-timber  roofs,  as  they  are  called,  are  a  characteristic 
feature  of  English  Gothic  architecture  and  are  classified 
under  four  heads,  according  to  their  construction;  namely, 
tie-beam,  trussed-rafter,  hammer-beam,  and  collar-braced  roofs. 


248  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

The  tie-beam  roof  consists  of  two  rafters  inclined  to  the 
proper  angle  and  held  together  at  or  near  their  bearings  by 
a  tie-beam  across  the  building.  Elaborations  of  this  prin- 
ciple and  further  complications  were  introduced  by  orna- 
mental work  being  placed  above  the  tie-beam  when  the  pitch 
was  steep. 

In  the  trussed-rafter  roof,  the  low  tie-beam  is  done  away 
with,  and  braces  are  used  to  strengthen  the  rafter  at  the  top 
and  bottom,  as  shown  in  Fig.  61  (a).  This  arrangement 
permitted  the  pointed  vault  to  extend  well  up  into  the  roof 
construction. 

The  hammer-beam  roof  consisted  of  an  arrangement  of 
struts  and  ties  ornamented  with  curved  braces  at  the  angles, 
all  of  which  were  tenoned  and  pinned  together.  Fig.  61  (c) 
shows  a  hammer-beam  roof,  and  at  (d)  is  shown  a  double- 
hammered  beam  construction. 

The  collar-braced  roof  was  a  modification  of  the  hammer 
beam,  and  consisted  of  a  rafter  braced  up  to  the  ridge  with 
curved  struts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  61  (b). 

The  timbers  of  these  wooden  constructions  were  richly 
carved  and  elaborated,  some  of  the  roofs  producing  deco- 
rative features  of  great  beauty. 


EXAMPLES 

148.  Nearly  all  of  the  English   cathedrals   were   com- 
menced in  the  Norman  period,  and  their  construction  con- 
tinued throughout  the  four  centuries  of  Gothic  development. 
Any  one   of   these    structures,   therefore,   will  show  in   its 
various  parts  the  characteristics  of  each  individual   period. 

149.  Peterborough    Cathedral. — In    Fig.    62    (a)    is 
shown  a  transverse  section  through  the  nave  and  aisles  of 
Peterborough  Cathedral,  which  was  built  during  the  Norman 
period.     The  aisles  were  vaulted  as  shown,  but   the   nave 
was  covered  only  by  a  wooden  roof. 

In  the  nave,  as   shown  in  elevation  at  (£),  three  tiers  of 
arches  are  supported   by  the  piers,  the  first  a  opening  to 


249 


FIG.  63 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  251 

the  aisle,  the  next  b  disclosing  the  triforium,  and  the  third  c 
showing  the  clearstory.  These  openings  are  covered  by, 
semicircular  arches,  characteristic  of  the  Norman  period,  and 
the  details  are  extremely  simple,  tending  to  severity. 

On  the  outside  elevation,  as  shown  in  (c) ,  a  single  semi 
circular-headed  window  a  in  each  bay  lights  the  aisle,  while 
a  small  arcade  above  b  pierces  the  wall  of  the  triforium. 
Triple  windows  above  at  c,  mark  the  clearstory.  All  of  these 
details  are  extremely  simple,  and  no  attempt  is  made  to 
carve  or  decorate  the  capitals  or  moldings  elaborately. 

Peterborough  Cathedral  was  begun  in  1117,  and  as  a  por- 
tion of  it  was  completed  before  the  end  of  the  12th  century, 
it  can  be  taken  as  a  pure  example  of  the  Norman  period. 
In  Fig.  63  is  shown  the  interior. 

150.  Salisbury  Cathedral. — In  Fig.  64  are  shown 
similar  sectional  views  of  Salisbury  Cathedral,  which  was 
built  between  the  years  1220  and  1258  and  is  therefore 
entirely  Early.  English  in  design.  The  nave  as  well  as  the 
aisle  is  vaulted,  with  a  pointed  arch  for  the  transverse  ribs, 
and  the  thrust  of  the  nave  vault  is  transmitted  to  the  but- 
tress b  by  a  brace  a  in  the  form  of  a  flying  buttress.  This 
flying  buttress  finishes  flush  with  the  wooden  roof  of  the 
aisle  and  therefore  is  not  observable  on  the  outside  of  the 
building.  Here  then,  in  the  Early  English  style,  is  intro- 
duced a  new  architectural  detail,  the  flying  buttress,  made 
necessary  by  the  vaulting  of  the  nave  but  so  concealed 
under  the  aisle  roof  that  it  does  not  appear  as  an  exterior 
detail. 

In  Fig.  64  (b}  is  shown  an  inside  elevation  of  the  nave, 
wherein  pointed  arches  replace  the  semicircular  arch  of  the 
Norman  period,  and  at  (c)  the  outside  elevation  js  shown, 
with  the  double  windows  that  light  the  aisle  and  the  triple 
windows  in  the  clearstory.  There  are  no  exterior  windows 
in  the  triforium  here,  and  the  wooden  roof  over  the  aisle 
vaulting  extends  from  the  sill  of  the  clearstory  windows  to 
the  top  of  the  aisle  wall.  An  interior  view  of  the  Salisbury 
Cathedral  is  shown  in  Fig.  65. 


2     S 


252 


253 


254  ARCHITECTURE  AND. ORNAMENT  §50 

151.  Ijichfleld     Cathedral. — A     transverse     section 
through  the  Lichfield  Cathedral,  Fig.  66  (a\,  shows  the  flying 
buttresses  a    above  the    aisle    roof,   and   the   buttresses   b 
weighted  with  pinnacles  c  so  as  to  add  to  their  stability. 
This  method  of  construction  is  characteristic  of  the  Deco- 
rated, or  14th  century,  period.     The  additional  intermediate 
ribs  in  the  nave  vault  are  also  shown  in  this  figure. 

The  inside  elevation  of  the  nave,  at  (b},  shows  a  triangular 
window  with  three  trefoil,  or  three-leaved,  openings  a  in  the 
clearstory,  and  a  pair  of  pointed  windows  b  in  the  triforium, 
and  one  broad  pointed  window  in  the  aisle  wall.  The  clear- 
story and  aisle  windows  are  divided  by  mullions  supporting 
smaller  pointed  arches  that  in  turn  support  the  stone  filling 
above.  This  filling  is  pierced  with  openings  in  the  form  of 
quatrefoils  and  trefoils.  This  method  of  piercing  the  wall 
and  thus  decorating  the  upper  part  of  the  windows  is  called 
tracery,  which  will  be  taken  up  later. 

On  the  outside  elevation,  at  (c],  the  aisle  and  clearstory 
windows  are  shown  as  within  with  three  foliated  piercings 
under  the  point  of  the  arch.  The  buttresses  show  applied 
decoration  in  the  form  of  decorated  gables  at  b,  as  well  as 
actual  gables  over  their  tops  at  a  and  c.  Thus,  it  will 
readily  be  seen  that  the  tendency  of  the  style  is  toward 
elaboration  of  detail  and  false  structural  devices,  as  opposed 
to  the  Early  English  style,  which  was  characterized  by 
simple  detail  and  sincere  construction. 

152.  Winchester   Cathedral. — The  characteristics  of 
the  15th  century  vaulting  have  already  been  discussed,  but 
the  development  of  the  general  construction  in  the  Perpendic- 
ular period  is  well  shown  in  Fig.  67  (a),  which  illustrates  a 
section  through  the  nave  of  the  Winchester  Cathedral.    Here 
are  clearly  shown  the  ribs  of  the  complex  vaulting,  and  the 
effect  of  this  system  on  the  shape  of  the  vault.     Instead  of 
a  high-pointed  vault,  as  over  the  nave  of  the  Salisbury  Cathe- 
dral,   Fig.    64,    the   vault   was   constructed   of   a  series  of 
short  arcs  lying  in  a  comparatively  flat  plane.     In  conse- 
quence, the  window  heads,  which  took  their  form  from  the 


255 


•Jlf* 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  257 

vault,  also  become  flattened  and  the  pointed  arch  under 
which  pairs  and  triplets  are  grouped,  then  assumed  a  low, 
broad,  and  squat-like  contour  that  was  struck  from  four 
centers.  All  groupings  tended  to  a  multiplication  of  per- 
pendicular lines;  consequently,  the  window  openings  were 
arranged  to  present  the  grouping  of  a  lot  of  perpendicular 
panes  with  elaborate  tracery  at  the  top. 

The  interior  elevation  of  the  nave,  at  (b) ,  shows  the 
depressed,  or  drop,  arch  in  the  nave  arcade,  with  elaborate 
panelwork  and  decoration  carved  about  it.  The  clearstory 
windows  consist  of  a  group  of  three  nearly  rectangular  open- 
ings, the  tops  of  which  are  given  a  pointed  effect  by  means 
of  tracery.  The  structural  significance  of  the  pointed  arch 
is  now  lost  entirely,  but  as  the  style  declines  the  form  is 
still  used  for  decorative  purposes,  regardless  of  its  propriety 
or  form. 

On  the  exterior  of  this  cathedral,  as  shown  at  (c),  the  effect 
of  the  change  is  even  more  apparent.  Windows  grouped 
under  a  depressed  arch  are  protected  by  a  similarly  formed 
dripstone.  Vertical  mullions  divide  the  window  from  sill  to 
head,  while  traceried  forms  convert  the  tops  of  the  individual 
openings  into  the  lancet  forms  of  traditional  Gothic.  The 
pinnacles  used  to  weight  the  buttresses  are  elaborately  carved 
in  vertical  panels  and  are  crowned  with  pyramidal  roofs  and 
foliated  decorations.  The  flying  buttresses  are  low,  and, 
with  the  aisle  roof,  are  hidden  behind  the  parapet  of  the  out- 
side aisle  wall. 

153.  The  four  periods  of  the  English  Gothic  style  have 
been  considered  separately,  but  it  must  not  be  overlooked 
that  these  four  periods  form  one  continuous  style  and  that 
the  change  from  one  period  to  the  next  was  slow  and  transi- 
tional, usually  covering  a  period  of  about  50  years.     More- 
over, the  changes  took  place  at  different  times  in  different 
parts   of  the  country,  as   the   general   development,  though 
progressive,  was  slower  in  some  sections  than  in  others. 

154.  Church  at  Iff  ley. — The  little  Norman  Church  at 
Iffley,  Fig.  68,  was  erected  sometime  in  the  12th  century, 

I  LT   303—18 


FIG.  68 


FIG.  70 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  261 

and  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  examples  of  the  Norman 
style,  not  because  of  its  importance  architecturally  or  his- 
torically, but  because  it  has  been  preserved  with  so  few 
changes.  This  church  is  103  feet  long  and  19  feet  wide, 
inside  measurements.  There  are  three  entrances,  one  on 
each  side  (north  and  south)  and  one  in  the  west  end.  Each 
entrance  is  elaborately  decorated  and  the  design  of  each 
is  different,  the  west  one  being  the  most  ornate. 

155.  Canterbury  Cathedral. — Canterbury  Cathedral, 
Fig.  69,  is  a  splendid  structure,  being  545  feet  long  and  170 
feet  wide  with  a  nave  80  feet  high.     Nearly  four  centuries 
passed  while  this  structure  was  being  erected,  and  it  thus 
presents  nearly  every  period  of  the  English  Gothic  style.     It 
was  commenced  in  the  12th  century  on  the  site  of  an  older 
structure  built  during  the  Roman  occupation,  and  the  great 
bell   tower  at   the   crossing   of   the   nave   and   transept  was 
finished  in  the  Perpendicular  period,  about  the  close  of  the 
loth  century. 

156.  Ely  Cathedral. — Ely   Cathedral,  Fig.  70,  is  one 
of    the  longest   cathedrals    in   Europe,  its   external   length 
being    537    feet.      Like    Canterbury    Cathedral,    it    presents 
examples  of  each  period  of  English  Gothic,  as  it  was  com- 
menced in  1081,  the  eastern  portion  completed  in  1106,  and 
additions  and  alterations  made  up  to  the  16th  century.     The 
octagonal  tower  at  the  crossing  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
designs  to  be  found  in  the  style. 

157.  Wells  Cathedral.— Wells  Cathedral,  Fig.  71,   is 
one  of  the  smallest,  but  at  the  same  time,  most  beautiful, 
cathedrals  of  England.     The  front  is  beautifully  ornamented 
and  consists  of  niches  that  contain  over  three  hundred  sculp- 
tured figures,  half  of  which  are  either  life  size  or  larger. 

The  interior  of  this  structure,  Fig.  72,  is  rich  and  impres- 
sive. The  sun  streaming  through  the  colored  glass  of  the 
east  windows  bathes  the  interior  in  a  polychromic  glory, 
with  which  the  interlacing  arches,  the  sharp-cut  foliage 
carved  on  the  capitals,  and  the  lofty,  ribbed  vaulting  blend 
most  harmoniously. 


262 


FIG    -v 


FIG.  73 


264 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


265 


158.     AVestminster    Abbey. — Westminster   Abbey, 
Figs.  73  and  74,   was   founded  in  the   llth   century  by  the 


WESTMINSTER 


FIG.  74 


Dominican  monks,  commonly  known  as  the  Black  Friars,  on 
account    of    their    costume.      Like    other    monasteries,    it 


266  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

consisted  of  a  cloister  court,  from  which  opened  the  chapter 
house.  The  cloisters  were  vaulted  passageways  between 
different  parts  of  the  monastery,  and  the  chapter  house  was 
a  building,  usually  octagonal  in  England,  set  apart  for  the 
business  meetings  of  the  abbot  and  canons  of  the  Church. 
On  one  side  of  the  court  extended  the  refectory,  or  great 
dining  hall,  while  the  dean's  house  and  garden  occupied 
another  side.  In  addition  to  the  details  shown  in  West- 
minster plan,  Fig.  74,  the  monasteries  usually  possessed  an 
inner  court  with  an  infirmary  for  the  sick  and  aged,  a  guest 
house,  a  kitchen,  a  servants'  hall,  a  library,  and  a  scrip- 
torium, or  room  for  the  copying  and  illuminating  of  books. 
A  court  with  a  gateway  for  carts  was  usually  surrounded  by 
granaries,  bakehouses,  storerooms,  stables,  servants'  quar- 
ters, etc.,  and  mills,  workshops,  gardens,  orchards,  etc. 
were  distributed  as  circumstances  required.  Monasteries 
took  the  place  of  inns  during  the  medieval  period,  and  even 
at  the  present  day  there  are  parts  of  Europe  where  they 
still  fill  this  function.  

ANALYTICAL   STUDY 


PLANS 

159.  During  the  Norman  period,  the  cathedral  and 
church  plans  usually  consisted  of  a  Latin  cross  with  a  tower 
at  the  intersection  of  the  arms,  an  altar  in  the  short  arm, 
and  a  choir  extending  from  the  transept  toward  the  east  as 
in  the  Peterborough  Cathedral,  Fig.  75.  The  Early  English 
plans  varied  only  slightly  from  the  Norman,  but  the  intro- 
duction of  the  new  vault  had  a  tendency  to  alter  the  plan- 
ning, as  the  compartments  of  the  nave  became  oblong 
instead  of  square.  Double  transepts  are  introduced  into 
some  of  the  plans  of  this  period,  as  in  the  Salisbury 
Cathedral,  Fig.  75. 

The  plans  of  the  Decorated  period  introduce  wider  spa- 
cings  in  the  bays,  except  in  cathedrals  started  during  the 
earlier  periods,  as  in  the  York  Cathedral,  Fig.  76.  The 


PETERBOROUGH 


267 


FIG.  75 


Fio.  76 


268 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  269 

progress  of  vaulting  influenced  the  setting  out  of  the  piers, 
and  the  vaults  themselves  became  influenced  by  the  intro- 
duction of  stained  glass  in  the  windows,  thereby  demanding 
much  larger  windows.  The  central  towers  were  carried 
higher  and  surmounted  the  spires,  which  were  usually  octag- 
onal and  carried  exterior  ribs  on  the  angles.  This  was  a 
period  of  parish  churches  and  domestic  architecture  more 
than  of  cathedrals,  as  the  latter  had  nearly  all  been  started 
in  the  earlier  periods. 

During  the  Perpendicular  period,  the  system  of  planning 
had  not  changed.  The  great  building  activity  during  the 
previous  periods  rendered  numerous  new  structures  unneces- 
sary, and  the  ecclesiastical  work  consisted  mostly  of  addi- 
tions and  repairs.  The  piers  became  somewhat  smaller  and 
the  buttresses  much  deeper,  as  the  latter  were  called  on 
to  carry  more  of  the  weights  and  pressures. 


WALLS 

160.  During  the  Norman  period,  the  walls  were  very 
thick,  owing  to  the  use  of  the  semicircular  arch,  and  the 
inside  walls  were  usually  divided  about  evenly  between 
the  arcade  and  the  triforium  and  clearstory,  as  shown  in 
the  Peterborough  Cathedral,  Fig.  62.  The  buttresses  were 
broad  and  flat,  projecting  little  beyond  the  wall  itself,  and, 
frequently,  they  did  not  project  beyond  the  corbel  table  at  '.he 
bottom,  see  Fig.  77  (a).  The  stonework  was  inferior,  the 
core  being  poorly  bonded  with  the  facing,  and,  consequently, 
in  many  instances  failed. 

During  the  Early  English  period,  more  cut  stone  was 
employed,  and  it  was  carried  deeper  in  the  rubble  filling, 
although  the  walls  retained  the  same  massiveness  as  in  the 
Norman  style.  The  adoption  of  the  pointed  vault  and  con- 
sequent concentration  of  the  weight  of  the  roof  vaults  on  the 
buttresses,  gradually  reduced  the  thickness  of  the  enclosing 
walls  between  the  supports,  so  that  they  became  merely 
screens  between  the  buttresses.  The  buttresses  themselves 
were  necessarily  thicker,  as  they  carried  the  entire  weight  of 


vL  rj~l_i-ti    i-i  •)  j.  j-'-^.- 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  271 

the  vault,  frequently  attaining  a  projection  equal  to  their 
width.  See  Fig.  77  (b) .  In  order  to  resist  the  horizontal 
thrust  that  was  occasioned  by  the  pointed-roof  vault,  the  outer 
faces  of  the  buttresses  were  gradually  set  back  by  slanting, 
weathered  offsets,  so  that  the  buttresses  were  smaller  at  the 
top  where  less  strength  was  needed.  The  corners  were 
sometimes  chamfered,  Fig.  77  (c)  and  (d),  and,  occasionally, 
where  the  offsets  occurred,  a  small  gable  was  introduced. 
During  this  period  the  flying  buttress  appeared,  but  it  was 
concealed  under  the  aisle  roof  and  did  not  form  a  prominent 
feature  until  later.  The  subdivision  of  the  interior  walls 
along  the  nave  usually  gave  one  half  to  the  arcade,  and 
the  other  half  was  evenly  divided  between  the  triforium 
and  the  clearstory.  See  Fig.  64. 

161.  In  the  Decorated  period,  the  walls  themselves 
received  a  decorative  treatment  in  the  form  of  paneling. 
The  development  of  tracery  in  the  windows  and  the  increased 
size  of  the  buttresses,  with  the  paneling  of  the  wall  between 
them,  were  characteristic  of  this  period.  The  buttresses 
themselves  were  offset,  as  in  the  previous  period,  and  are 
frequently  ornamented  with  niches,  as  in  Fig.  77  (e) ,  or 
occasionally  with  canopies  and  crockets.  Buttresses  at  the 
angles  of  the  buildings,  projecting  diagonally,  were  intro- 
duced in  this  period,  as  shown  at  a  in  the  Bangor  Cathedral, 
Fig.  75.  The  parapets  were  pierced  with  geometrical  designs 
and  flowing  tracery,  although  the  battlemented  form  was 
strongly  adhered  to. 

With  the  Perpendicular  period,  the  walls  became  profusely 
paneled,  strongly  resembling  the  tracery  of  the  windows. 
The  parapets  were  embattled  as  before  and  also  paneled 
and  frequently  were  richly  designed.  The  buttresses  were 
much  deeper  than  in  the  previous  period,  sufficient,  some- 
times, to  permit  their  being  screened  off  and  forming  a 
separate  chapel.  The  buttresses  were  elaborately  paneled 
on  their  faces,  as  in  Fig.  76  (/),  and  often  they  were  mounted 
with  finials  or  ornamented  with  crockets.  Flying  buttresses 
were  more  common  and  had  much  larger  span 


272  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


COLUMNS 

162.  An  interesting  development  of  the  arcades  under 
the  nave  walls  of  the  cathedrals  is  shown  in  Fig.  78.  The 
change  of  form  from  the  round  arch  to  the  pointed  arch, 
which  has  been  previously  discussed,  resulted  in  a  change 
from  the  heavy  pier  to  the  lighter  pier,  while  the  elaboration 
of  carving  from  the  simple  tooth  ornament  to  the  foliated 
forms  of  the  Gothic  period  was  due  to  change  of  taste,  increase 
of  skill,  and  improvement  of  instruments  used.  The  two 
arches  shown  in  Fig.  78  (a)  illustrate  the  change  in  carving. 
The  arch  on  the  left  shows  the  Norman  crude  work  which 
was  cut  with  the  stone  ax,  while  that  on  the  right  shows  the 
transition  in  style  and  elaboration  in  design,  when  the  chisel 
supplanted  the  ax,  at  the  close  of  the  12th  century.  The 
example  here  shown  is  taken  from  the  Canterbury  Cathedral, 
and  is  a  striking  example  of  advancement  and  style. 

In  Fig.  78  (b)  is  shown  the  characteristic  Norman  column 
with  the  pointed  Norman  arch  and  carved  ornament,  intro- 
ducing nothing  but  the  pure  Norman  moldings.  In  (c]  is 
shown  the  heavy,  round  column  carved  to  represent  a  clus- 
ter of  columns,  but  the  capitals  are  simply  a  group  of  the 
smaller  details  shown  in  (b),  and  the  arched  moldings  are 
still  Norman  in  character. 

The  Early  English  treatment  is  shown  in  (d).  Here,  the 
arches  are  pointed  and  the  columns  are  clustered  and  capped 
with  the  characteristic  stiff-leaf  foliage.  The  moldings  of 
the  arches  contain  the  dog-tooth  ornament  characteristic  of 
this  period,  while  the  walls  themselves  retain  that  sturdy 
thickness  and  body  inherited  from  the  Norman  style.  In  (e), 
the  columns  become  lighter,  the  arches  more  pointed,  the 
details  more  delicate,  and  the  walls  much  thinner.  The  sur- 
faces over  the  arches  are  richly  diapered,  and  intermediate 
bands  surround  the  columns,  apparently  tying  the  strands 
together. 

In  (/),  approaching  the  Decorative  period,  the  capitals  are 
ornamented  with  elaborate  leaf  carvings,  and  the  spandrels 
between  the  artnes  present  elaborated  canopies  a  with  gables 


(tl) 


273 

I  L  T   303—19 


§50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  275 

and  finials.  There  was  no  marked  change  in  the  treatmenc  of 
the  arches  in  the  Perpendicular  period,  as  few  alterations 
were  made  at  this  time  in  the  naves  of  cathedrals  that 
demanded  such  changing. 

163.  The  earliest  column  capital  in  the  Norman  period 
was  simply  a  block  with  its  lower  corners  rounded  off  to 
make  the  rounded  side  conform  to  the  round  column  that 
supported  it,  as  shown  in  Fig.  79  (a).  Later,  the  square 
capital  became  carved,  as  in  (b] ,  and  the  supporting  details 
were  indented  so  as  to  represent  leafwork.  This  change  in 
form  introduced  the  molded  capital  shown  in  (c),  in  which  the 
hollow  support  was  retained  uncarved,  while  the  abacus  was 
turned  in  a  series  of  circular  moldings.  The  introduction  of 
foliated  work  under  the  capital  is  shown  in  (d)  and  (e) ,  which, 
with  the  example  from  the  Lincoln  Cathedral  shown  at  (/), 
present  excellent  examples  of  the  stiff-leaf  foliage  character- 
istic of  this  period.  This  is  also  presented  in  a  similar  form 
in  (£•),  which  is  also  from  the  Lincoln  Cathedral.  It  will  be 
noticed  in  each  of  these  examples  that  the  foliated  form 
rises  from  the  neck  of  the  shaft,  apparently  growing  out  of 
the  same,  very  much  in  the  same  manner  as  some  of  the 
papyrus  and  lotus-bud  capitals.  All  of  these  foliated  cap- 
itals have  a  bell  shape,  and  the  stems  of  the  foliage  are 
apparently  retained  with  a  necking  at  the  bottom.  In  the 
Decorated  period,  however,  this  characteristic  was  lost,  and 
the  leaf  ornament  seems  to  be  spreading  over  the  surface  with- 
out growing  from  it,  as  shown  in  (h) .  The  bell  capital  was 
sometimes  used  in  connection  with  the  ball-flower  ornament 
during  this  period,  but  the  usual  style  was  one  rich  in  foliage 
carved  meaninglessly  on  the  surface.  The  leaves  of  this 
period  are  not  conventional  representations,  as  in  the  Early 
English  period,  but  are  portrayals  of  the  characteristics  of 
certain  growths,  such  as  the  oak,  the  ivy,  the  maple,  etc. 

In  the  Perpendicular  period,  the  capitals  became  plain 
again.  They  were  frequently  octagonal  in  plan,  with  simple 
moldings  worked  around  the  angles,  as  in  (z),  or  later  with 
the  sides  carved  in  some  simple  leaf  form,  as  in  (_;'). 


276  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


•  OPENINGS 

164.  "Windows. — One  of  the  strongest  characteristics 
of  the  English  Gothic  style,  from  the  late  Norman  to  the 
Perpendicular  period,  was  the  development  of  tracery.     The 
Norman  windows  were  rather  long  and  narrow,  sometimes 
divided  by  a  shaft,  and  frequently  ornamented  with  zigzag 
ornament,  as  at  Iffley,  Fig.  80  (a).     As  the  style  developed 
toward  the  Early  English,  the  jambs  were  molded,  and  the 
upper    part    between    the    pointed    windows    was    pierced 
either  with  a  circular  opening,  as  in  Fig.  80  (6),  or  with  an 
opening  composed  of  a  series  of  intersecting  circles  in  the 
form  of  a  trefoil  or  quatrefoil,  as  in  (c). 

This  decoration  of  the  window  subdivision  was  called 
tracery.  Where  it  consisted  simply  of  piercing  the  walls 
with  an  opening,  as  at  (b)  and  (<:),  it  was  called  plate  tracery, 
and  where  the  decorative  effect  was  obtained  by  carrying 
these  mullions,  or  bars,  to  the  top  of  the  window  head,  where 
they  split  and  intersected,  as  in  (d) ,  the  system  was  called 
bar  tracery.  This  bar  tracery  subsequently  became  foliated 
so  as  to  present  the  introduction  of  a  trefoil  both  at  the 
heads  of  the  windows  themselves  and  at  the  openings  over 
the  windows,  as  in  (e).  This  foliation  indicates  approach 
toward  the  Decorated  period,  and  in  (/)  is  shown  a  window 
where  this  effect  has  been  carried  out  systematically. 

165.  During  the  Decorated  period,  however,  the  win- 
dows presented  a  less  structural  character.    The  bars  did  not 
rise  evenly  and  naturally  to  the  top  of  the  window  head  and 
form  patterns  by  their  intersections,  but  finished  abruptly,  in 
some  cases,  in  three  or  four  tong,  narrow  lights,  over  which 
geometrical  constructions  filled  the  window  head,  as  in  (g), 
or  terminated  in  wheel  forms,  as  in  (h).      Where  the  bars 
split,  the  subdivisions  took  a  wavy  form  and  a  geometrical 
construction  was  introduced,  as   shown  in  (/).      This  was 
frequently  applied  in  square  openings,  as  in  (/).    Toward  the 
end  of  this  period  the  introduction  of  the  ball-flower  ornament. 
Fig.  84  (g),  as  a  decorative  detail  on  the  moldings  rendered 


U^^fe^^v^ 


T^~ 

~ 


,;<fc>.«a^r*fe^^  ^.r  rar  ^PJ?^ 
',  oc  '.^B^*ST_?£' ^;-5T;-'K^i^$i?^fer-'i 


l-l  J=LLTLl  -t Til  h  |-JL 


!  j  I  |  J-14-IM   NTH  M  I  I-H 
L.-U-J     I, 


«*«M 


§50 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


279 


some  of  the  windows  very  elaborate,  but  at  the  same  time 
detracted  from  their  simple  beauty,  as  in  (/£)•  The  curvi- 
linear tracery  shown  in  (/')  was  frequently  carried  to  greater 
extremes,  as  shown  in  (/) ,  making  the  window  appear  broader 
and  introducing  an  even  number  of  panels  in  the  lower  half, 
subject  to  decorative  effects  in  stained  glass. 

166.  In  the  Perpendicular  period,  the  tendency  to  divide 
the  window  into  two  portions — the  upper  half  geometrical 
in  construction,  and  the  lower  half  narrow  in  the  panels — 


::..  nnmnl 


FIG.  82 

became  more  emphasized  by  dividing  the  lower  half  into 
two  series  of  panels,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8r(a),  and  carrying  the 
details  of  the  upper  portion  out  in  a  similar  series  of  panels 
interspersed  with  intersecting  split  bars.  Occasionally,  where 
there  was  an  even  number  of  panels,  these  bars  split  at  the 
center  and  continued  to  the  window  head  in  a  simple  curve 
with  vertical  subdivisions  between,  as  in  (a),  or,  particularly 
where  there  was  an  odd  number  of  panels,  they  were  carried 

I  L  T  101—5 


280  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

straight  to  the  window  head,  as  in  (b],  and  the  side  lights 
only  framed  under  a  curved  rib. 

The  advancement  in  the  system  of  vaulting,  depressing 
the  arches  of  vault  surfaces,  required  that  the  window  heads 
should  be  crowned  by  a  flattened  arch  in  order  to  correspond 
with  the  vault  surfaces  on  the  inside.  Thus,  in  Fig.  81  (c ) 
there  is  an  extension  of  the  principle  shown  in  (b) — a  wider 
window  and  a  depressed  vault.  In  (d)  is  shown  a  window 
where  the  tracery  has  degenerated  into  a  series  of  vertical 
panels,  and  in  ((?),  a  window  similar  in  design  to  that  in  (d), 
but  with  longer  panels  and  more  tracery  in  the  head. 

Fig.  82  shows  one  end  of  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor 
Castle,  in  which  the  perpendicular  treatment  of  the  entire 
end  of  the  building  includes  a  series  of  panels  of  window 
tracery. 

167.  Circular  windows  were  introduced  at  the  ends  of 
the  naves  in  the  late  Norman  and  Early  English  periods. 
The  window  shown  in  Fig.  81  (/)  is  strongly  characteristic 
of  Norman,  and  shows  the  application  of  the  tooth  ornament. 
In  (g)  is  shown  a  window  from  Lincoln  Cathedral  that  was 
designed  about  the  same  period  as  that  shown  in  (/),  and, 
though  still  retaining  Norman  details,  it  indicates  a  leaning 
toward  the  Early  English  principles.    The  Decorated  period, 
however,  comes  out  strongly  in  its  circular  windows  with 
foliated   openings,    as    in   (h).     In  some  cases,  there  is  a 
wheel  construction  as  at  (z).     These  circular  windows  are 
usually  termed  rose  windows. 

168.  Doorways. — The  Norman  doorway  was  at  first  a 
simple  arched  opening  with  quoined  stones  on  each  side,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  83  (a),  but  later  it  was  recessed  and  elab- 
orately ornamented  on  the  jambs,  as  may  be  seen  in  IfHey 
Church,  Fig.  68,  and  in  Fig.  83  (b).     The  simpler  form  of 
doorway  in  the  Early  English  period  is  shown  in  (c).     This 
doorway  is  simply  a  square  head  with  shoulders,  but  with 
the  development  of   the   period   appears  the  pointed  arch 
characteristic  of  the  style,  the  recessed  jambs  with  moldings 
and  columns,  and  the  decorative  treatment  shown  in  (d). 


282  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

During  the  Decorated  period,  simpler  doors  presented 
fewer  moldings,  but  had  elaborate  decorative  effects  on 
the  moldings,  as  shown  in  (e).  The  dripstone  over  the 
door  head  frequently  rested  on  two  carved  heads,  usually 
those  of  the  king  and  the  bishop  or  of  two  prominent 
ecclesiastical  officers.  The  tops  of  the  openings  during  this 
period  were  sometimes  foliated  as  in  (/),  the  capitals  of  the 
columns  and  the  jambs  were  carved  with  leaf  ornaments, 
and  occasionally  a  series  of  crockets  was  worked  over  the 
dripstone. 

Perpendicular  doorways  were  frequently  square  openings 
within  which  a  pointed  arch  was  struck.  Over  all  a  square 
lintel  and  a  drip  were  executed,  and  the  spandrels  were  filled 
with  tracery,  as  in  (g).  The  jambs  were  decorated  with  a 
series  of  columns,  and  the  general  contour  formed  a  simple 
splay.  

MOLDINGS 

169.  In  the  earliest  Norman  construction,  the  moldings 
simply  consisted  of  a  series  of  projected  courses  of  stone,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  84  (a).  The  corners  of  alternating  courses 
were  sometimes  chamfered  off  and  a  roll  carved  on  the 
course  between,  but  with  the  introduction  of  the  pointed 
arch  it  became  the  pointed  roll,  or  boltel,  as  in  (b). 

The  Early  English  moldings  consisted  of  bold,  round 
boltels  with  deep-cut  hollows,  producing  strong  effects  of 
light  and  shade.  They  were  carved  on  the  same  projecting 
courses  as  in  the  Norman,  as  shown  in  Fig.  84  (c),  but  pre- 
sented a  greater  variety  in  appearance. 

In  the  Decorative  period,  the  moldings,  as  shown  in  (d), 
were  not  cut  so  deeply,  though  they  were  based  on  the  same 
details  as  in  the  preceding  style.  In  the  Perpendicular 
period,  instead  of  being  cut  on  the  projected  courses  of  the 
masonry  work,  the  surfaces  on  which  they  were  cut  seem  to 
have  been  reduced  simply  to  plain  surfaces,  and  the  lines  of 
the  moldings  sunk  beneath  it,  as  shown  in  (<?).  The  deco- 
rative characteristics  of  the  moldings  from  the  Norman 
period  are  shown  in  Fig.  84  from  (/)  to  (s). 




umwuivuwiiiivutuiijaumtnuji 


(k) 


284  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


ORNAMENT 

170.  The  points  of  gables  were  frequently  ornamented 
with  some  form  of  the  cross.     In  the  Norman  period,   a 
simple,  equal-armed  cross  usually  completed  the  roof  ends. 
This  cross  took  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  85  (a)  during  the 
Early  English  period,  and  was  elaborated  to  the  form  shown 
in  (b)  in  the  Decorated  period.     The  Perpendicular  period 
presented  further  elaborations,  as  shown  in  (c). 

Finials  instead  of  crosses  were  sometimes  introduced  over 
gables  and  at  the  top  of  buttresses  or  other  lofty  points. 
The  form  shown  at  (d)  is  from  the  Early  English  period; 
that  at  (e),  from  the  Decorated  period;  and  that  at  (/),  from 
the  Perpendicular  period.  These  are  not  the  only  forms 
that  were  used  to  present  the  general  characteristics  that 
prevailed.  A  simple,  stiff-leaf  decoration  is  characteristic 
of  the  Early  English  period,  while  a  profusion  of  elaboration 
is  characteristic  of  the  Decorated  period.  A  thoroughly  stiff 
and  conventional  rendering  of  the  Perpendicular  period  came 
with  the  introduction  of  the  double-ogee,  or  Tudor,  arch. 

171.  Where    the    groined    ribs    intersected    under   the 
vaults,  or  where  they  rested  against  the  side-wall  buttresses 
without  a  column,  it  was  customary  to  decorate  the  point 
with  a  bunch  of  ornamentation  usually  termed  a  boss.     In  the 
example  shown  in  Fig.  85  (g] ,  the  characteristic  details  of 
the  Early  English  foliage  can  be  recognized,  whereas  the 
direct  imitation  of  the  ivy  leaf  in  the  example  shown  in  (h) 
suggests  the  late  Decorative  period,  and  the  form   shown 
in  (/)  may  be  found  in  the  late  examples  of  the  Perpendicular 
period. 

Along  the  gables,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  crock- 
ets were  frequently  carved.  These  usually  took  the  form 
shown  at  (/)  in  the  Early  English  period,  at  (k)  in  the 
Decorative  period,  and  at  (/)  in  the  Perpendicular  period. 

172.  The  battlements  which  surmounted  the  walls  in  the 
Early  English  period  were  simple,  square  indentations,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  86  (a)  and  (b) ,  but  during  the   Decorative 


285 


286 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§50 


period  they  were  pierced  with  wavy  details  subdivided  into 
panels  with  molded  tops  and  carved  heads  beneath,  as  shown 
in  (c).  The  molded  top  and  projecting  string-course  for  a 
base  was  retained  in  the  Perpendicular  period,  but  the  panels 
of  the  battlements  became  pierced  with  trefoil  or  quatrefoil 
ornament,  as  shown  in  (d).  Along  the  ridges  of  the  roof, 


FIG.  86 


crestings  were  introduced,  particularly  late  in  the  style. 
These  crestings  were  elaborately  decorated  and  presented  a 
foliated  ornament  frequently  having  carved  flowers  between, 
as  shown  in  (<?).  A  simpler  form  of  cresting  in  which  the 
floral  decoration  is  omitted  is  shown  at  (/). 

173.     Wall  surfaces  were  subdivided  and  decorated  with 
various  forms  of  diaper  ornament,  as  shown  in  Fig.  87  (a)  to 


FIG.  87 


288  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 

(/) ,  and  running  ornament  of  carved  forms  was  used  to  sub- 
divide the  panels.  The  characteristics  varied  with  each 
style,  but  the  foliated  forms  used  were  the  same  as  those 
applied  to  other  details  in  each  individual  period.  Sedilia, 
or  side  seats,  were  characterized  in  each  period.  The  forms 
of  grouping  and  decorations  shown  in  Fig.  87  (k),  (/),  (m)t 
and  (n)  are  characteristic  of  the  several  periods. 

174.  The  wall  diapers  were  usually  very  simple,  but 
were  brilliant  in  red,  blue,  green,  and  gold  (see  Fig.  88). 
The  details  seem  to  have  been  stenciled,  or  partly  stenciled, 
and  partly  worked  up  freehand. 

Simple  bands  of  characteristic  running  ornament,  in  which 
conventional  bird  forms  were  introduced,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  89  (a),  are  found  in  Westminster  Abbey,  as  is  also  a 
treatment  of  circles  and  heraldic  shields,  as  in  (b).  At  Salis- 
bury, a  combined  circle  and  checker  pattern,  as  in  (c),  is 
used  with  animal  forms  introduced  in  the  circles.  Elabo- 
rate color  schemes  were  sometimes  used  on  the  moldings 
and  as  a  background  to  the  foliage  of  the  capitals. 


4)  *  W 


A    wr    A 

^^  A 


/  ^Mk\ 

<*J 


FIG.  88 


218    §50 


FIG.  89 


I  L  T  303—20 


290  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §50 


REVIEW     EXERCISES 

1.  During  what  period  was  Gothic  architecture  dominant  through- 
out Western  Europe? 

2.  (a)  Why  is  English  Gothic  freer  from  foreign   influences  than 
that  of  other  parts  of  Enrope?     (b)  Into  what  periods  can  English 
Gothic  be  divided?    (c)  In  what  details  do  the  characteristic  principles 
of  each  period  lie? 

3.  Describe  the  characteristics  of  (a)  Norman  vaulting,  (b)  Early 
English  vaulting,  (c)  Decorated  vaulting,   (d)  Perpendicular  vaulting. 

4.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  cross-section  of  a  church  showing  the 
structural    details    and    general    arrangement    characteristic    of    the 
(a)  Norman  period,  (b)  Early  English  period,  (c)  Decorated  period, 
(d)  Perpendicular  period. 

5.  Describe  the  characteristics  of  the  buttresses  of  the  four  periods 
of  English  Gothic  architecture. 

6.  Describe  the  characteristics  of  the  piers  and  columns  of  the  four 
periods  of  English  Gothic  architecture. 

7.  Make  drawings  in  elevation  of  Gothic  capitals  illustrating  the 
characteristics  of  each  of  the  four  periods  of  English  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. 

8.  Make  four  drawings  of  Gothic  window  openings  showing  the 
characteristics  of  the  four  English  periods,  with  a  short  description 
of  each. 

9.  State  briefly  the  characteristics  of  the  four  periods  of  English 
Gothic  doorways,  illustrating  the  details  of  each. 

10.  With  a  description  and  drawing,  illustrate  the  characteristics 
of  English  Gothic  moldings  from  the  Norman  to  the  Perpendicular 
period. 

11.  Give  a  general   description  of  the  characteristics  of  English 
Gothic  ornament,   illustrating  with  drawings    of    examples    covering 
the  four  periods. 

12.  Make  four  sketches  of  Gothic  wall  decoration,  two  to  be  in 
color,  and  two  in  wash  work. 

NOTE:— All  drawings  to  be  neatly  drawn  on  sheets  9  Inches  by  12  inches  -with  a 
•j-inch  border,  and  to  be  of  sufficient  size  to  show  details  clearly.  Two  or  more 
drawings  may  be  placed  on  one  sheet  if  desired,  but  should  not  be  crowded. 


HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 
AND  ORNAMENT 

(PART  3) 


FRENCH   GOTHIC 

(987  A.  D.  TO  14(51  A.  D.) 


INFLUENCES 

1.  Geographical,  Geological,  ami  Climatic. — France 
(see   map,    Fig.  35,   History   of  Architecture  and   Ornament, 
Part  2),  maybe  divided  by  the  river  Loire  into  two  sections. 
The  northern  section  was  inhabited  by  the  Franks,  while  the 
southern  one  was  occupied  by  some  of  the  Roman  race.     This 
fact,  together  with  the   geological  and   climatic   influences, 
has  already  been  considered  in  History  of  Architecture  and 
Ornament,  Part  2,  page  201. 

2.  Religious. — The  crusades  represented  by  Louis  IX 
of  France  (1248  to  1254)  gave  rise  to  great  religious  zeal 
in  this  country  and  consequently  to  the  erection  of  many 
important  ecclesiastical  structures.     The  clergy  rose  to  great 
power  and  influence   owing  to   its  unswerving  justice  and 
adhesion  to  royal  interests.     Abbe  Sugar,  prime  minister  of 
Louis  VII  (1137  to  1180),  exercised  great  influence  in  church 
building,  and  while  the  pope  at  Rome  was  the  controlling 
spirit  of   the   entire   ecclesiastical    establishment,    the    local 
liberties  of  the  French  Church  were  recognized.     Various 


2  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

cults  and  sects  arose  and  gave  fame  to  certain  shrines  and 
chapels,  to  which  pilgrimages  were  made  from  all  parts  of 
the  country,  bringing  wealth  and  prominence  to  these  edifices 
and  thus  enabling  them  to  express  their  affluence  in  rich 
architectural  treatment.  Cities  erected  their  cathedrals  with 
an  enthusiasm  that  became  a  characteristic  of  the  nation, 
and  in  consequence  we  find  that  in  France  the  most  impor- 
tant religious  structures  were  erected  in  its  most  prominent 
commercial  cities. 

3.  Political  and  Historical. — The  beginning  of  modern 
France  was  in  987  A.  D.,  when  Hugh  Capet  became  king  of 
the  feudal  monarchy.  During  this  period  the  fiefs  were 
occupied  by  nobles  of  widely  different  races.  These  nobles 
were  almost  constantly  at  war,  and  the  development  from 
the  Romanesque  style  to  the  Gothic  style  varies  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  in  accordance  with  the  local  political 
environments  and  the  differences  of  language  and  customs. 
Moreover,  in  the  south  of  France,  there  were,  and  are  up  to 
the  present  time,  remains  of  many  Roman  structures,  which 
naturally  influenced  the  new  structures  (see  Fig.  75,  History 
of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  1). 

Between  1180  and  1223,  Philip  the  Great,  a  descendant  of 
Hugh  Capet,  united  the  French  provinces  into  a  homo- 
geneous nation  by  destroying  the  feudal  power  of  the  barons. 
King  John  of  England,  after  entering  into  an  agreement 
with  Philip,  betrayed  him,  and  in  order  to  obtain  revenge 
Philip  declared  that  John  had  forfeited  all  the  fiefs  he  held 
under  the  French  crown  and  proceeded  to  conquer  Normandy 
and  all  other  English  possessions  on  the  Continent  except 
Aquitaine  (which  had  become  an  English  province  when 
Henry  II  of  England  married  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  the 
divorced  wife  of  Philip's  father).  Philip  then  defeated  the 
combined  forces  of  the  English,  Germans,  and  Flemish  in 
the  battle  of  Bouvines,  1214  A.  D.  The  power  of  France 
thus  became  so  strong  that  the  English  barons  offered  the 
English  crown  to  Philip's  eldest  son,  who,  as  Louis  VIII, 
was  afterwards  king  of  France. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  3 

CIIARACTKRISTICS 

4.  Though  Gothic  architecture  in  France  was  the  same 
in  principle  as  in  all  other  parts  of  Europe,  the  vertical,  or 
aspiring,  tendency  was  accentuated  by  a  greater  height  of 
the  nave   than  in   England  and  by  high-pitched  roofs  with 
numerous  spires  and  crockets,  pinnacles,  flying  buttresses, 
etc.,  and  the  windows  were  tall  and  rich  in  tracery.     The 
style  is  not  so  pure  as  the  English  Gothic,  but  this  can  be 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  France  is  not  isolated  from 
the  Continent  as  is  England,  and  the  architecture  therefore 
did  not  have  the  same  opportunity  to  develop  independently. 
Nevertheless,  French  Gothic  architecture  presents  the  same 
general  development  as  does  the   English   style  during  its 
four  periods,  but  the  French  periods  are  known  under  differ- 
ent names,  owing  to  the  differences  in  local  influence.     The 
periods  into  which  French  Gothic  architecture  is  divided  are, 
the  Early  French,  or  13th  Century;  the  Rayonnant,  or  14th 
Century  (from  a  term  meaning  radiating,  on  account  of  the 
characteristic  rose  windows);  and  the  Flamboyant,  or  loth 
Century,  from  the  flamelike  form  that  the  traceries  assumed 
during  this  period.     All  the  great  structures  were  erected  in 
the  first  half  of  the  loth  century,  and  of  these  about  150  were 
cathedrals  for  which  the  funds  were  provided  by  the  people 
at  large  and  not  by  the  monastic  establishments.     This  sys- 
tem being  entirely  different  from  that  practiced  in  England, 
a  great  variety  of  plans  and  arrangements  is  found  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  France  contrasting  \vith  the  uniformity  of  plan 
in  the  English  system. 

5.  The  first  requirement  of  all  cathedral  buildings  was 
to  have  the  structure  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  mass 
of  people  that  assembled  regularly  for  worship.     Thus,  the 
first  element  that  contributes  to  impressiveness  in  all  cathe- 
drals  is  the   s/'zf — the   vastncss.     Size  may   be    produced   in 
three  ways:   by  length,  by  breadth,  or  by  height.     To  con- 
struct a  long  building  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter.     One 
section  after  another  may  be  added  without  limit  so  long  as 


4  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

the  material  holds  out.  The  erection  of  a  wide  building, 
however,  is  quite  a  different  matter.  The  roofing  of  a  struc- 
ture 100  feet  wide  is  a  far  more  serious  problem  than  the 
roofing  of  one  only  20  feet  wide,  and  in  the  erection  of  the 
medieval  cathedrals,  there  came  a  limiting  point  where  it 
was  not  possible  to  make  buildings  any  wider.  Then  came 
the  question  of  height.  To  construct  a  stone  roof  on  walls 
20  feet  high  is  far  simpler  than  to  build  one  on  walls  100  feet 
high,  as  the  walls,  besides  carrying  their  own  weight,  must 
be  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  the  vault  thrusts.  For 
instance,  a  pile  of  single  bricks  four  courses  high,  will  stand 
by  itself  with  little  danger  of  collapse,  but  continue  the 
courses  up  to  twenty  bricks  in  height,  and  the  slightest  touch 
will  throw  them  down.  In  order  to  carry  weight,  a  wall 
must  have  a  thickness  in  proportion  to  its  height,  or  else  it 
must  be  strengthened  at  the  point  where  the  outward  pres- 
sure is  greatest.  The  first  of  these  methods  is  Roman  and 
Early  Romanesque,  and  the  second  is  late  Romanesque  and 
Gothic. 

A  wall  may  be  strengthened  by  means  of  a  short  wall 
built  either  at  right  angles  to  it  or  against  it;  or  the  wall 
that  is  to  serve  as  a  brace  may  be  built  some  distance  away 
and  have  an  arch,  or  Prop,  extending  to  some  point  in  the  main 
wall  that  is  to  be  supported.  The  first  method  produces  the 
buttress,  while  the  second  introduces  the  flying  buttress.  (See 
Art.  50,  History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  2.) 

6.  The  proportions  of  length,  breadth,  and  height  vary 
in  different  periods  and  in  different  countries.  The  Roman- 
esque churches  along  the  Rhine  were  characterized  by  their 
great  length,  and  some  of  the  English  Gothic  churches  are 
also  long,  but  the  development  of  height  as  a  national  char- 
acteristic of  their  cathedrals  is  found  only  in  France.  These 
high  walls  demand  a  corresponding  development  of  but- 
tress and  flying  buttress.  Consequently,  the  French  Gothic 
style  is  further  characterized  by  an  elaborate  flying-buttress 
treatment  that  appears  as  a  detail  on  the  exterior,  in  con- 
trast with  the  English  style,  in  which  the  buttresses  were 


FIG.  1 


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W 
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TTTTT 


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^     .  .mtttttii 

(w  >»**»•  ^ 

CH.OIR  M  NAVS 


8  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

frequently  concealed  under  the  roof  slopes  of  the  aisles. 
(See  Fig.  64,  History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  2.) 
By  this  system,  the  nave  walls  were  carried  on  a  series  of 
small  columns,  and  the  thrusts  of  the  roof  vault  were  taken 
up  by  a  series  of  flying  buttresses.  The  building  thus  con- 
sisted of  a  vault  and  upper  nave  walls  carried  on  a  series 
of  columns  and  props  (Fig.  3),  and  the  enclosing  walls 
along  the  aisles  became  mere  screens  between  the  structural 
details.  As  a  result  of  this  ingenious  system  of  building, 
the  screen  walls  could  be  pierced  by  vast  windows,  which, 
with  their  flood  of  colored  light  through  the  painted  glass, 
added  greatly  to  the  impressiveness  of  the  interior. 


EXAMPLES 

7.  Notre  Dame  Cathedral. — Notre  Dame  at  Paris, 
Fig.  1  (erected  1163  to  1214),  is  one  of  the  oldest  French 
cathedrals  and  presents  a  plan,  Fig.  2  (a),  typical  of  the 
French  Gothic  style,  although  the  structure  has  been  sub- 
jected to  many  alterations  and  additions.  It  has  a  wide 
central  nave  with  double  aisles  and  small  transepts  that  do 
not  project  beyond  the  sides,  as  in  the  English  examples. 

The  view  down  the  nave,  Fig.  3,  is  most  impressive. 
The  massive  piers  supporting  the  nave  walls  are  crowned 
with  Corinthian  capitals,  showing  the  influence  of  the  geo- 
graphical position  of  France.  From  each  of  these  capitals 
springs  a  cluster  of  three  attached  columns,  which  spread 
into  the  ribs  of  the  vault  above.  This  treatment  adds  to 
the  lofty  appearance  of  the  nave,  but  was  improved  on  in 
later  examples  by  having  the  attached  columns  spring  from 
the  ground  line  and  extend  as  an  unbroken  rib  to  the  crown 
of  the  vault,  as  at  Amiens,  Fig.  12,  while  other  attached 
columns  support  the  aisle  arches  and  vaults. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that,  as  broad  as  this  plan, 
Fig.  2  (a),  appears,  the  nave  only  is  carried  up  to  the  full 
height  and  roofed,  as  shown  in  Figs.  4  and  5  (a),  and  that 
the  dead-weight  of  this  nave  wall  and  the  crowning  vault  110 
feet  above  the  pavement  is  carried  on  the  nave  columns  a, 


FIG.  3 


NOTRE  DAMS  CATHEDRA!,. 


EXTERIOR  ELEVATir 

OFAI-SI.EWAI.I,  f> 

CLERESTORY 


U 


(&) 

FIG.  5 


ftloft  ELEVATION 

or 

NA.VC  WALL 


12  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

Fig.  2  (a),  while  the  tremendous  outward  thrust  is  taken 
up  by  flying  buttresses  to  the  fixed  buttresses.  The  weight 
of  these  flying  buttresses  in  themselves  is  an  important 
factor  in  retaining  the  thrust  of  the  roof  vaults  against  the 
bases  on  which  they  lean.  It  should  therefore  always  be 
remembered  that  a  flying  buttress  is  a  prop.  Notre  Dame 
presents  the  first  Gothic  vault  of  monumental  proportions 
and  the  first  practical  demonstration  of  the  possibilities  of 
Gothic  construction. 

A  continuation  of  the  double  aisles  around  the  eastern  end 
of  the  plan,  forms  a  chevet,  which  is  a  characteristic  detail  of 
French  cathedral  plans.  The  chevet  consists  of  the  passage- 
way around  the  end  of  the  church  and  usually  includes  the  apse. 

The  west  front  of  Notre  Dame,  Fig.  1,  is  one  of  the 
grandest  elevations  in  France.  A  high,  pierced  screen 
masks  the  gable  at  the  end  of  the  nave  between  the  two 
towers,  and  the  horizontal  band  of  sculptured  figures,  together 
with  the  open  screen  of  interlaced  arches,  produces  strong 
horizontal  elements  in  the  design,  an  effect  that  was  avoided 
in  later  examples.  Here,  however,  the  bold  projection  of  the 
buttresses  and  the  freedom  of  the  towers  preserve  the  pre- 
dominance of  vertical  lines. 

The  towers  stand  practically  free  for  nearly  half  their 
height,  which  lends  much  to  their  impressiveness.  They 
are  magnificent  in  themselves,  being  simply  and  finely 
proportioned  and  possessing  openings  of  great  magnitude. 

Entrance  is  effected  through  three  portals  at  the  end  of  the 
nave  and  aisles.  These  portals  have  recessed  arches,  as  in 
the  Romanesque  entrances,  the  central  portal  being  six 
arches  in  depth,  and  the  soffits  of  the  arches  being  filled  with 
elaborate  carvings  and  statuary,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6  (a). 
The  main  lines  of  this  design  are  repeated  in  the  more 
elaborate  designs  that  follow  it.  However,  notwithstanding 
its  simplicity,  this  edifice  still  remains  unsurpassed  in  noble 
dignity  and  harmonious  proportions. 

8.  Bourges  Cathedral. — Bourges  Cathedral,  which  was 
commenced  in  1190,  resembles  Notre  Dame  somewhat  in 


14  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

plan,  but  differs  from  it  in  having  no  transepts.  It  is  very 
short  in  comparison  to  its  width,  but  with  its  nave  117  feet 
in  height  and  unbroken  by  transepts,  it  presents  one  of  the 
most  imposing  interiors  of  the  period,  Fig.  7. 

The  city  of  Bourges  is  only  a  few  miles  south  of  Paris, 
but  there  is  a  material  change  in  the  climatic  conditions,  and 
this  change  is  strongly  reflected  in  the  manners  of  the  people 
and  the  architecture.  Here,  the  old  Roman  ideas  were  well 
rooted,  and  the  Gothic  style  never  entirely  overthrew  them. 
Pointed  and  round  arches  are  freely  intermingled,  apparently 
with  little  discrimination,  but  usually  with  characteristically 
Gothic  supports  and  mullions. 

The  west  front  of  this  structure,  Fig.  6  (£),  presents  five 
portals,  each  opening  on  a  separate  aisle.  The  portals  are 
deeply  recessed  and  are  carried  out  slightly  beyond  the  but- 
tresses, instead  of  simply  piercing  the  walls  between  the 
buttresses,  as  in  Notre  Dame. 

9.  Chartres  Cathedral. — Chartres  Cathedral,  Fig.  8, 
was  built  between  the  years  1194  and  1260,  and  is  noted 
for  its  sculptures,  its  spires,  and  its  painted  glass.  While 
there  is  not  so  much  painted  glass  in  this  structure  as  in  the 
cathedral  at  Bourges  or  at  Rheims,  it  is  particularly  brilliant 
and  rich  in  color  effect.  The  sculpture  of  the  west  front  of 
the  Chartres  Cathedral  forms  one  of  the  most  important 
collections  of  Gothic  statues  in  Europe.  The  transept 
porches  are  also  richly  carved,  and  present  examples  unex- 
celled in  any  other  structure.  Over  the  main  portals  is  a 
magnificent  rose  window,  which  fills  the  entire  tympanum  of 
the  nave  vault  within.  This  window  is  beautifully  designed 
in  Early  Gothic  plate  tracery,  and  dates  from  the  early  part 
of  the  13th  century. 

Although  at  first,  the  north  tower  at  Chartres  seems  to  be 
more  interesting  than  its  mate,  closer  study  reveals  detail  in 
the  south  tower  that  characterizes  it  at  once  as  one  of  the 
most  interesting  in  the  country.  The  octagonal  spire 
springs  gracefully  from  the  top  of  the  square  tower,  and  the 
method  of  joining  the  two  forms  is  most  ingenious.  It  is 


I  LT   303—21 


18  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

accomplished  through  the  employment  of  eight  gables,  which 
serve  as  finishes  at  the  top  of  the  tovver  buttresses,  and  at  the 
same  time  cover  the  junction  of  the  octagonal  spire  with  the 
square  tower.  In  simplicity  of  style  and  purity  of  line, 
the  south  tower  is  one  of  the  noblest  examples  of  the  Early 
Gothic  style.  The  north  tower  is  more  ornate,  but  the  upper 
stages  are  weak  and  there  is  a  lack  of  continuity  between 
the  lower  part  and  the  portion  above  the  screen-wall  arcade. 
Towers  were  planned  to  flank  the  transepts,  but  they  were 
never  carried  above  the  nave  walls. 

The  plan  of  Chartres,  Fig.  2  (c),  shows  a  double  row  of 
aisles  around  the  choir,  but  only  a  single  row  each  side  of 
the  nave  west  of  the  transepts.  The  flying  buttresses  that 
support  the  nave  vault  are  in  three  tiers,  one  above  the  other, 
as  can  be  seen  in  Fig.  8,  the  lower  two  being  connected  with 
radiating  arms,  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  9  (a).  This  arrangement  enabled  the  builders  to  make 
the  lower  arch  very  light,  as  the  weight  of  the  one  above  it 
would  keep  it  in  place. 

10.  Reims  Cathedral.— Reims  Cathedral,  Fig.  10,  built 
between  1212  and  1241,  presents  a  western  front  similar  in 
outline  to,  but  more  elaborate  than,  Notre  Dame.  The 
facade  is  strongly  marked  by  vertical  lines  and  is  unusually 
high  in  proportion  to  its  width.  The  openings  are  tall  and 
narrow,  and  the  gables  introduced  over  the  portals  are 
acutely  pointed,  all  of  which  tends  to  give  the  fagade  a  lofty 
aspect  that  is  very  imposing.  There  is  one  horizontal  fea- 
ture in  the  upper  part,  consisting  of  a  gallery  of  niches  con- 
taining statues.  This,  however,  is  broken  around  the  towers 
so  that  the  vertical  feeling  is  not  interrupted.  The  rose 
window  over  the  central  portal  is  a  very  beautiful  example 
of  tracery  work,  but  its  insertion  under  a  pointed  arch  seems 
to  be  badly  conceived,  as  the  two  forms  do  not  harmonize. 

The  triangular  spandrels  above  the  arch  are  filled  with 
curious  carved  figures  that  are  varied  in  size  to  suit  the 
space,  while  the  canopied  niches  each  side  of  the  portals 
contain  figures  of  the  Madonna  and  the  Apostles.  The 


FIG.  10 


20  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

portals  at  Reims  are  similar  to  those  at  Amiens,  Fig.  11, 
except  that  they  are  shallower  and  contain  glass  windows  in 
the  tympanum  instead  of  carvings.  The  change  is  not  an 
improvement,  as  the  glass  does  not  show  to  good  effect  on 
the  exterior;  neither  does  the  interior  require  extra  illumina- 
tion at  this  point,  while  carving  would  look  well. 

The  number  and  size  of  the  flying  buttresses  at  Reims, 
with  their  elaborately  carved  crockets  and  canopies,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  9  (6),  are  not  excelled  in  any  part  of  France. 
The  general  tendency,  however,  is  toward  an  overelabora- 
tion,  or  redundancy,  of  ornament.  The  detail  is  beautifully 
and  wonderfully  executed,  but  there  is  too  much  of  it. 

11.  Amiens  Cathedral. — The  plan  of  the  cathedral  at 
Amiens,  Fig.  2  (£),  is  generally  considered  as  typical  of  the 
French  style.     It  has  been  neither  altered  nor  rearranged 
since  the  erection  of  the  structure  in  1288,  and  consequently 
does  not  present  that  mixture  of  period  details  which  char- 
acterizes the  English  plans.     The  plan  consists  of  a  broad 
nave  between  aisles  of  half  its  width,  and  the  aisles  extend 
around  the  choir  at  the  east  end,  where  chapels  between  the 
buttresses  form  a  chevet.     The  transept  is  constructed  with 
aisles  similar  to  the  nave,  but  does  not  duplicate  the  nave  in 
treatment,  as  was  done  at  Reims  and  Chartres.     This  elabo- 
ration   of   the    transept    and    the    introduction    of    chapels 
between  the  buttresses  developed  from  the  previous  style, 
but  the  elaboration  of  the  fronts  as  they  appear  in  Northern 
France  is  far  beyond  anything  attempted  in  the  designs  of 
the  Romanesque  period. 

12.  The  Amiens,   Reims,  and  Notre  Dame   cathedrals 
are  all  different,  yet  they  present  many  points  of  similarity 
in  detail.     The  facade  of  Amiens,  Fig.  11,  consists  of  two 
towers   in  front  of  the  aisles  and  a  screen  wall  between 
them,  enclosing  the  nave.     The  lower  portion  is  occupied 
by  three  portals,  the  central  one  opening  into  the  nave  and 
the  other  two  opening  into  the  aisles.     Immediately  above 
these  portals  are  two  bands  of  arches  extending  across  the 
entire  fagade.     The  upper  band  consists  of  a  series  of  niches 


FIG.  11 


22  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

containing  statues,  and  the  two  occupy  a  portion  of  the 
trifcrium  on  the  interior.  Above  the  arcades,  the  wall  is 
p'ierced  by  an  elaborate  rose  window  that  corresponds  in 
position  with  the  clearstory  of  the  nave.  At  this  point  the 
two  towers  disengage  themselves  from  the  front  wall  and 
take  form  as  separate  details,  although  the  screen  wall  is 
still  carried  up  between  them,  and  is  crowned  with  two 
series  of  arcades  that  cover  the  end  of  the  nave  vault. 

This  treatment  of  the  fagade  is  characteristic  of  the  French 
style,  and  variations  of  it  are  to  be  found  in  Notre  Dame 
and  Reims.  The  proportions  of  Notre  Dame  Cathedral  are 
better,  owing  to  the  superior  designing  of  the  towers  and 
their  relations  to  the  rest  of  the  building.  The  nave  of 
Notre  Dame  is  not  so  lofty  as  that  of  Amiens,  as  it  was 
built  a  half  century  earlier.  Therefore,  the  rose  window  at 
the  end  of  the  nave  lies  immediately  over  the  central  portal, 
with  only  one  intervening  band  of  statuary.  However,  this 
permits  the  arcade  above  the  rose  window  to  be  much  more 
developed  in  Notre  Dame,  where  it  extends  across  the 
entire  fagade  and  forms  a  prominent  detail  of  the  front, 
entirely  covering  the  end  of  the  nave. 

The  west  facades,  and  especially  the  portals,  are  the  glory 
of  the  French  style.  There  are  no  entrances  in  England 
that  can  compare  with  the  portals  of  Notre  Dame,  Amiens, 
Bourges,  Chartres,  or  Reims.  Peterborough  and  Lincoln 
have  distinctive  portal  treatment,  but  in  neither  case 
approach  the  dignity  of  the  French  examples. 

13.  Elaborate  decoration  is  characteristic  of  Gothic  style 
in  all  countries.  The  designers  never  seemed  to  weary  of 
an  elaboration  of  details,  and  even  when  the  execution  is 
crude  and  unskilled,  there  is  a  sincerity  about  it  that  always 
makes  it  interesting.  The  sculpture  of  the  portals  presents 
figures  in  great  profusion,  but  without  any  feeling  of  over- 
elaboration  or  redundancy.  There  is  always,  throughout  the 
fac.ades,  a  judicious  arrangement  of  highly  decorative  and 
plain  surfaces,  so  that  a  neutral  balance  prevails  throughout 
the  design. 


24  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

14.  The   nave    of   the    cathedral  at  Amiens,   shown  in 
Fig.   12,   presents  one   of   the  most  imposing   interiors  in 
Europe.     The  dimensions  are  unusual,  and  the  feeling  of 
vastness  is  expressed  without  overstraining  any  one  detail. 
This  nave  is  470  feet  long  and  144  feet  wide,  and  the  vault- 
ing over  it  is  140  feet  above  the  pavement.     The  walls  of 
the  interior  are  plain  and  present  a  marked  contrast  in  this 
respect   to  the    elaborate  sculpture   on  the    exterior.     The 
capitals  are  simple,  and  the  columns  consist  merely  of  four 
semidetached    shafts,   grouped   around   a  circular   pier.     A 
band  of  simple  carving  extends  along  the  top  of  the  nave 
wall,  marking  the  beginning  of  the  triforium,  while  the  clear- 
story and  triforium  themselves  present  very  little  decora- 
tion.    The  vault   ribs    are    simply  molded    and    as  few  as 
possible  in  number,  unlike  the  vaults  of  England,  and  the 
vertical  lines,  beginning  at  the  base  of  the  columns,  sweep 
unbroken  into  the  crown  of  the  nave  vault  with  a  simplicity 
that  adds  greatly  to  the  impressiveness  of  the  interior. 

15.  Abbey  Cliurcli  of  St.  Ouen. — The  Abbey  Church  of 
St.  Ouen,  at  Rouen,  the  plan  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  2  (/), 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting  structures  in  France.     This 
abbey  is  the  most  ancient  in  Normandy,  having  been  founded 
in  the  year  533;  but  the  present  church  was  not  begun  until 
1318.     It  has  been  burned  and  rebuilt  twice,  so  that  there  is 
little  left  of  the  original  structure  except  in  the  northern  apse 
of  the  transept.     The  rest  of  the  edifice  was  erected  between 
1318  and  1345,  and  is  probably  the  latest  pure  Gothic  work 
of  importance  in  France. 

St.  Ouen  exemplifies  absolute  perfection  of  lightness  and 
grace.  The  disposition  of  ribs  and  buttresses  represents  the 
most  admirable  arrangement  of  balanced  thrusts.  Its  Gothic 
framework  is  merely  a  skeleton.  The  tracery  is  flamboy- 
ant, but  flamboyant  restrained  within  reasonable  limits,  and 
although  the  church  is  most  beautiful  from  every  aspect,  it 
has  the  appearance  of  being  almost  overdelicate  for  so  large 
a  building.  The  tower,  Fig.  13,  at  the  intersection  of  the 
transept  and  nave  suggests  English  influences,  as  .this 


FIG.  14 


28  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

arrangement  was  characteristic  of  the  English  cathedrals. 
The  western  fagade,  Fig.  14,  is  of  much  later  date  than  the 
rest  of  the  structure. 

16.  Abbeys    and    Monasteries. — There    were    many 
abbeys  and  monasteries  founded  throughout  France.     Prob- 
ably   one    of    the    most   interesting   is    that   of   Mount    St. 
Michel,  Fig.  15,  on  the  coast  of  Brittany.     It  is  built  on  a 
lonely  rock  that  rises  abruptly  from  the  sea,  but  at  a  point 
where  the  tides  rise  and  fall  to  such  an  extent  that  a  part 
of  the  time  it  is  surrounded  by  a  vast  expanse  of  wet  sand 
and  the  rest  of  the  time  with  pounding  waves  of  the  ocean. 
Originally  founded    as    an    abbey,  it   afterwards   became    a 
fortress,  as  it  was  close  to  the  coast,  and  in  the  numerous 
wars  in  which  Normandy  was  involved,  it  was  dragged  into 
conflict. 

The  early  history  of  the  abbey  is  lost,  but  it  was  founded, 
according  to  tradition,  in  the  first  decade  of  the  8th  century, 
although  no  traces  remain  of  any  constructions  earlier  than 
the  llth  century.  However,  during  the  dark  ages,  it  pre- 
served the  thread  of  history  and  kept  alive  the  ancient  arts 
and  sciences. 

The  town  of  Mount  St.  Michel  is  surrounded  oy  a  military 
wall  that  is  protected  by  towers  and  turrets.  Within  this 
wall  lines  of  ramparts  wind  about  the  hill  toward  the 
monastery  at  the  top.  These  ramparts  are  fortified  in  every 
way  known  to  medieval  warfare.  At  the  top  of  the  hill,  the 
real  entrance  to  the  monastery  is  reached  after  climbing  a 
long  flight  of  stone  steps.  The  entrance  is  flanked  by  two 
great  towers,  with  ominous  machicolations  between  them, 
as  shown  in  Fig  16. 

17.  The  Abbey  Church  is  at  the  top  of  the  rock.     The 
interior  presents  a  picturesque  combination  of  columns  and 
arches,   of  both  Norman  and  Gothic  design,  almost  over- 
whelming in  massiveness.     From  the  center  of  the  magnifi- 
cent Norman  nave,  its  massive  details  can  be  compared  with 
the  delicate  traceries  of  the  Gothic  choir,  Fig.  17;  but  even 
more  interesting  than  this  is  the  contrast  between  the  crypt 


FIG.  16 


Fio.  17 


I  L  T  303—22 


32  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

under  the  church  and  the  cloisters  of  the  so-called  "Gothic 
marvel"  on  the  other  side  of  the  mount.  The  fact  that 
the  monastery  was  built  on  a  mount  rising  from  the  sea 
prevented  the  planning  of  the  structures  from  being  carried 
out  strictly  on  the  Benedictine  system.  The  difficulties  over- 
come in  the  construction  of  the  building  on  the  north  side 
have  given  it  the  name  "Gothic  marvel."  The  structure  is 
situated  at  the  top  of  a  rugged  cliff  160  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  which  cuts  it  off  from  the  mainland.  All  the 
granite  used  was  quarried  on  the  mainland  coast  by  the 
monks  and  then  transported  across  the  intervening  water. 
The  building  is  in  three  stories,  the  lowest  containing  the 
almonry,  or  place  for  the  distribution  of  alms;  the  intermedi- 
ate story,  the  refectory  and  chapter  room,  Fig.  18,  for  the 
Knights  of  St.  Michel;  and  the  third,  the  dormitory  and 
cloisters.  The  chapter  room  was  finished  about  1220  and 
contains  four  vaulted  aisles  of  unequal  width  supported 
on  three  rows  of  columns,  two  of  which  rest  on  the  piers  of 
the  almonry,  while  the  third  row  rests  on  the  rock  itself. 
The  columns  and  their  capitals,  together  with  the  ribs  of  the 
vaulting,  are  deserving  of  special  study.  The  capitals, 
though  similar  in  general  appearance,  are  widely  different  in 
detail,  and  each  vault  rib  descends  independently  to  the  circu- 
lar abacus.  The  simplicity  of  the  ribs  and  the  arrangement 
of  the  joints  are  typical  of  Early  French  Gothic  construction. 

18.  Above  the  chapter  room,  as  just  stated,  are  the 
cloisters,  Fig.  19.  These  were  finished  in  1228,  and  are 
considered  to  be  the  most  delicate  and  graceful  of  Gothic 
structures.  They  are  built  around  an  open  court,  similar  to 
the  Moorish  Court  of  the  Alhambra  [see  Fig.  80  (a)],  and  it 
would  appear,  in  spite  of  the  isolation  of  the  spot,  that  some 
Moorish  influence  had  been  at  work  when  they  were  designed. 
Toward  the  central  court,  the  cloisters  are  supported  by  a 
double  row  of  pointed  arches  resting  on  slim  granite  pillars 
having  an  exquisitely  groined,  narrow  vault  behind  the  rows. 
The  capitals  are  of  the  plain  bell  form  with  circular  abacuses, 
which  are  common  in  English  Gothic  examples  but  rare  in 


34  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

French  Gothic.  The  piers  of  one  arcade  alternate  with  the 
point  of  the  next,  and  allow  the  introduction  of  a  graceful 
scroll  from  the  capital  of  each  alternate  pier.  The  spandrels 
are  elaborately  worked  in  foliated  ornament  that  is  beauti- 
fully executed  and  still  in  a  fine  state  of  preservation,  and 
the  whole  is  surrounded  by  a  cornice  composed  mainly  of 
flowers  carved  in  soft  limestone,  of  which  material  the  arches 
and  other  carvings  are  also  composed.  The  remainder  of 
the  construction  is  of  granite. 


ANALYTICAL   STUDY 


PLANS 

19.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  wide  difference  in  ideas 
between  the  English  and  the  French  Gothic  architects.  The 
plans  of  the  English  cathedrals  were  long  and  narrow,  the 
length  being  about  six  times  the  width,  and  the  vaults  over 
the  naves  were  low.  Cloisters  were  a  characteristic  detail, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  many  English  cathedrals  were  erected 
on  the  foundations  of,  or  through  the  influence  of,  the  monas- 
teries. The  cloisters  connected  with  the  separate  buildings, 
and  the  transepts  were  bold  and  conspicuous,  projecting  so  far 
from  the  main  structure  as  to  form  a  distinctly  crucial  plan. 

In  France,  however,  the  plans  are  short  and  wide,  being 
about  four  times  as  long  as  the  width.  The  naves  are  very 
high.  The  cloisters  are  rarely  found  in  any  example,  except 
in  the  extreme  south,  and  the  transepts  are  slight  in  pro- 
jection, except  in  a  few  instances,  as  in  Rouen  Cathedral, 
Fig.  2  (e),  while  in  some  cases  they  are  omitted  entirely. 
Side  chapels  within  the  church  are  numerous  and  are  often 
introduced  between  each  pair  of  buttresses,  as  the  adoration 
of  individual  saints  was  popular  in  France  and  the  saying  of 
special  masses  was  more  in  vogue  than  in  England.  In  fact, 
side  chapels  are  seldom  met  in  England,  owing  to  the 
monastic  foundation  of  the  English  churches. 

The  east  end  of  the  French  church  is  round,  as  a  rule, 
forming  the  chevet,  Fig.  2,  or  processional  aisle,  while  the 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  35 

English  structure  was  square  across  the  end.  Double  aisles, 
as  at  Notre  Dame,  Amiens,  Bourges,  Reims,  and  Chartres, 
are  common  in  the  French  plan,  while  only  two  churches 
in  all  England  possessed  this  characteristic.  Two  towers 
emphasize  the  western  elevation  of  the  French  cathedrals, 
and  only  a  small  pinnacle  emphasizes  the  intersection  of  the 
transepts  and  the  nave  except  in  the  church  of  St.  Ouen, 
Fig.  13;  whereas,  in  the  English  cathedral,  the  tall  central 
tower  at  the  intersection  of  the  transept  was  the  most  promi- 
nent feature  of  the  structure.  Occasionally,  in  England, 
prominence  was  given  to  a  single  western  tower,  as  in 
some  western  churches,  or  to  double  towers,  as  at  West- 
minster; and  in  some  parts  of  Normandy,  central  spires 
are  common.  

WALJ.S 

20.  The  early  English  buttresses  were  flat  projections. 
Later,  they  were  much  more  pronounced  and  diminished  in 
depth  as  they  arose,  the  offsets  occurring  at  two  or  three 
intervals  of  the  height,  the  top  being  crowned  with  a  pin- 
nacle, and  the  sides  being  ornamented  with  niches  and  later 
with  panels. 

In  France,  the  buttresses  appear  in  the  Romanesque  period 
about  as  in  England,  although  they  are  sometimes  semi- 
circular in  plan.  Later  they  became  very  deep,  but  they  do 
not  appear  prominently  on  the  exterior  of  the  church,  owing 
to  the  facts  that  chapels  were  built  between  them  and  that 
the  walls  of  the  church  were  built  at  the  outside  of  the  but- 
tresses instead  of  at  the  inside  [see  Fig.  2  (a),  ($),  and  (<?)]. 
These  projecting  buttresses,  like  the  English,  are  offset  in 
two  or  three  intervals,  the  slope,  or  weatherings,  being 
flatter  the  higher  they  appear  above  the  eye,  whereas  the 
weatherings  of  the  English  buttresses  become  steeper.  In 
many  cases  the  French  buttresses  are  nearly  vertical  and 
without  any  offsets,  while  the  English  buttress  of  any  height 
is  always  offset.  P'lying  buttresses  exist  in  some  English 
cathedrals,  but  they  are  usually  hidden  under  the  aisle  roof; 
in  the  French  cathedrals,  owing  to  the  great  heights  of  the 


36  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

nave  and  aisles,  the  flying  buttresses  are  elaborated  into  an 
important  detail  (see  Fig.  4). 

The  interiors  of  French  churches  gain  effect  from  their 
great  height,  and  they  are  extremely  plain,  possessing  little 
tracery  and  ornamentation;  on  the  other  hand,  the  English 
cathedral  is  lower  and  depends  on  the  elaboration  of  its 
triforium,  the  perplexity  of  its  piers,  the  variety  of  its  clear- 
stories, and  the  richness  of  its  vaulting.  Battlemented  para- 
pets characterize  the  English  wall,  while  traceried  parapets 
are  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  French.  The  front  elevation 
of  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  or  that  at  Reims  is  typical 
of  the  French  style,  whereas  the  west  front  of  the  Wells 
Cathedral  or  the  cathedral  at  Westminster,  Figs.  71  and  73, 
History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  2,  is  characteristic 
of  the  English.  

ROOFS 

21.  In  the  English  style,  the  roofs  are  of  moderate 
pitch,  and  as  the  style  advances  to  the  Perpendicular  period 
there  is  a  tendency  for  the  roof  to  become  flatter.  The 
roofs  of  the  French  cathedrals,  however,  were  always 
steeply  pitched,  being  ornamented  at  the  ends  of  the  gable 
with  metal  finials  connected  with  elaborate  crestings.  Car- 
pentry was  in  a  better  state  of  advancement  in  England  than 
in  France,  and  the  framing  of  the  wooden  roofs  was  more 
scientific.  Thus,  in  the  English  Gothic  halls,  wooden  roofs 
of  an  ornamental  character  are  worked  as  part  of  the  design; 
whereas,  in  the  French  interiors,  open-timber  roof  construc- 
tion was  never  properly  developed.  English  roofs  were  cov- 
ered with  lead;  French  roofs  were  usually  covered  with  slate. 
Vaulting  was  used  by  the  English  designers  mostly  in  the 
cathedrals  and  rarely  in  the  parish  churches,  while  vaults 
were  used  in  nearly  every  case  by  the  French.  The  domical 
Romanesque  vault  was  adhered  to  in  France,  while  the  real 
development  of  vaulting  and  vault  ribs  characterizes  the  Eng- 
lish style.  Fan-tracery  vaulting  never  appeared  in  France, 
although  pendants  are  frequently  used  in  the  Flamboyant 
period,  and  while,  in  the  English  vaults,  the  joints  of  the 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  37 

severies  are  either  parallel  with  the  wall  ribs  or  placed 
diagonally,  they  are  parallel  or  at  right  angles  in  the 
French  vaults. 

COLUMNS 

22.  Characteristic  of  the  English  style  is  the  clustered 
shaft,  and  in  later  work  this  style  was  always  preferred  to 
the  single  column.  In  the  French  style,  however,  the 
columns  are  usually  single  and  circular  in  plan,  due  to 
the  influence  of  Roman  tradition.  The  adoption  of  this 
style  of  column  introduced  a  difficulty  in  attempting  to 
harmonize  the  lines  of  the  vaulting  with  the  clumsy  shaft 
below;  whereas,  in  England,  the  early  adoption  of  the  thin 
shafts  as  a  continuation  of  the  vault  ribs,  created  a  basis  for 
a  pier  formation  that  avoided  such  a  difficulty.  Thus,  in 
England,  the  molded  column  or  pier  became  characteristic, 
and  its  evolution  through  each  period  is  easily  followed. 
In  the  south  of  France,  a  square  pier  is  sometimes  used 
with  three-quarter  columns  attached  to  it,  either  on  the 
corners  or  on  the  faces.  In  other  cases,  moldings  of  the 
arches  merge  into  the  columns  themselves  without  capitals. 


OPKNINGS 

23.  It  is  important  to  note  the  great  difference  in  detail 
between  the  French  and  the  English  style  of  openings.  The 
doorways  in  the  English  cathedrals  are  simple,  and  with  one 
or  two  exceptions  are  in  no  way  elaborated.  The  entrances 
to  the  French  cathedrals,  however,  are  richly  ornamented 
with  carved  figures  and  are  deeply  set  in  the  west  fronts,  as 
in  Fig.  6.  The  Early  English  windows  had  "plate"  tracery, 
but  this  was  quickly  abandoned  for  the  "bar"  tracery.  The 
French  window  of  plate  tracery  is  carried  throughout  the 
style,  the  final  development  being  found  in  the  flamboy- 
ant characteristics  that  give  that  name  to  the  period.  Only 
occasionally  are  circular  windows  found  in  English  examples, 
while  such  details  are  characteristic  of  the  west  fronts  of  the 
principal  French  cathedrals. 


38  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


MOLDINGS 

24.  A  great  variety  of  moldings  marks  the  English 
examples.  They  are  bold  and  rich  in  outline  and  are  applied 
much  to  capitals  and  pier  arches,  as  well  as  to  door  and 
window  openings.  The  French  moldings,  however,  are 
coarse  and  less  delicate,  little  attention  being  given  to  them 
as  decorative  features  of  importance. 


ORNAMENT 

25.  The  human  figure  introduced  as  a  decorative  motif 
was  carried  to  the  highest  state  of  perfection  in  the  French 
style,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  great  doorways  of  Notre  Dame, 
Amiens,  and  Reims,  and  also  in  the  niches  and  tabernacles 
that  characterize  the  fagades  and  portals  of  Notre  Dame, 
Chartres,  Reims,  and  Amiens. 

The  introduction  of  fierce,  grotesque  figures  at  the  angles 
of  towers  and  as  gargoyles,  or  waterspouts,  characterized  the 
French  style.  These  grotesques  represented  imps  and  devils 
of  the  infernal  regions,  or  consisted  of  a  weird  combination 
of  animal  and  bird  forms  typifying  both  evil  and  good  influ- 
ences. These  figures  may  be  seen  around  the  upper  part  of 
the  towers  of  Notre  Dame,  Fig.  1,  while  their  general 
character  may  be  more  clearly  studied  by  referring  to 
Fig.  20. 

These  hideous  creatures  were  not  prominent  characteristics 
in  the  early  Christian  period,  but  were  introduced  mostly  in 
the  10th  century,  during  the  general  panic  that  was  caused 
by  the  belief  that  the  end  of  the  world  would  come  in  the 
year  1000.  The  object  of  introducing  them  is  supposed  to 
have  been  to  excite  a  religious  influence  by  inspiring  terror 
in  the  heart  of  the  wrong-doer  and  thus  urge  him  to  repent- 
ance. Thus,  such  creations  as  shown  in  Fig.  20  (a)  and  (d) 
were  perched  on  the  towers  of  Notre  Dame  in  an  attitude  as 
if  watching  for  their  alloted  victims  at  the  day  of  judgment. 

Through  a  tradition  handed  down  from  the  Hebrews,  the 
dog  was  considered  as  associated  with  evil,  and  is  frequently 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


39 


so  classed  in  the  Bible;  hence,  the  double-headed  creature 
shown  at  (c] .     The  pelican  shown  at  (<5>),  was,  however,  an 


FIG.  20 


emblem  of  repentance  and  atonement.  According  to  tradi- 
tion, these  birds  sometimes  killed  their  half-grown  young, 
and  then,  repenting  their  deed,  tried  to  restore  life.  This 


40  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

they  did  by  tearing  open  their  own  breasts  and  feeding  their 
own  life's  blood  to  the  dead  offspring. 

26.  The   capitals    of    the    columns    and    piers   show   a 
derivation  from  the  Corinthian  order.     Crocket  capitals  and 
the  stiff -leaf  foliage  under  a  square  abacus  are  also  to  be 
found.     The  molded  bell  capitals  without  any  foliage  what- 
ever are  rare,  except  in  Normandy,  where  English  influences 
were  felt.     In  England,  however,  the  classic  type  of  capitals 
is  rarely  found.     The  earliest  carved  capitals  introduced  the 
characteristic  stiff-leaf  foliage,  and  throughout  all  periods 
the  bell  form  with  the  liberal  projection  is  used  under  certain 
conditions.     The  abacus  of  the  columns  is  seldom  square,  but 
is  frequently  octagonal  or  polygonal  and  usually  round. 

In  the  Early  French  capitals,  the  foliage  springs  directly 
from  the  tops  of  the  shaft,  as  shown  in  Fig.  21  (a),  and 
spreads  out  so  as  to  support  the  octagonal  abacus;  later, 
however,  the  foliage  was  carved  on  the  surface  of  a  bell- 
shaped  core,  as  shown  in  (b).  The  structural  relation 
between  the  foliage  and  the  core  being  entirely  ignored,  the 
character  of  the  foliage  itself  finally  degenerated  into  forms 
similar  to  that  shown  in  (c],  where  there  is  neither  reason 
nor  symbolism  in  the  design. 

The  capital  shown  in  (a)  is  a  conventional  arrangement  of 
foliage  made  to  crown  a  supporting  member.  In  (b)  there 
is  a  naturalistic  rendering  of  a  vine  growing  around  the  top 
of  a  supporting  member,  playing  a  decorative  but  not  a 
structural  part.  In  (c)  there  is  a  grotesque  foliation  planted 
against  the  top  of  a  supporting  member.  This  plays  neither 
a  decorative  nor  a  structural  part,  and  it  actually  destroys 
the  governing  lines  of  the  support.  These  three  capitals 
are,  respectively,  examples  of  the  Early  French,  Rayonnant, 
and  Flamboyant  periods. 

27.  The  running  ornament  presents  the  same  character- 
istic during  the  three  periods,  as  shown  in  Fig.  21  (d),  (<?), 
and  (/).     The  foliage  in  (d)   seems  to  grow  naturally  and 
gracefully  from  the  surface,  while  that  in   (e)   springs  geo- 
metrically and  at  precise  intervals  from  the  lower  member  of 


FIG.  21 


42 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


51 


the  molding.  In  (/),  however,  the  foliage  does  not  seem  to 
be  attached  to  the  surface  at  all,  and  the  leaf  form  is  as 
grotesque  as  that  on  the  capital  shown  in  (c). 

IQ  (*r)>  (^)>  and  (z)  are  shown  three  bosses  as  they  were 
carved  at  the  intersection  of  the  vault  ribs. 


FIG.  22 

28.  The  stairway  shown  in  Fig.  22  is  from  the  cathedral 
at  Rouen.  The  tracery  work  of  the  balustrade  is  elaborate 
in  design  and  refined  in  execution.  The  designs  of  the  first 
three  runs  are  different,  and  the  entire  composition  is  as 
light  and  dainty  as  can  be  found  anywhere  in  France. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  43 

The  decorative  sculpture  in  the  English  style,  however,  was 
not  carried  out  nearly  so  extensively  as  in  the  French  style, 
although  the  walls  of  Lichfield  Cathedral  and  Westminster 
Abbey  are  rich  in  this  respect.  The  "dog-tooth"  is  very 
common  in  the  ornament  of  the  early  style,  but  the  carved 
work  varies  considerably  in  successive  periods,  being  con- 
ventional in  the  Early  English  period  and  decidedly  natural- 
istic in  the  Decorated.  The  Perpendicular  period  returns 
again  to  conventionalism.  Stained  glass  is  found  in  both 
countries,  although  the  best  that  existed  in  the  French 
cathedrals  was  practically  destroyed  during  the  revolution. 

29.  Color  Decoration. — In  England,  color  was  applied 
to  wall  surfaces  and  to  sculpture.  The  roofs  and  screens  of 
the  Perpendicular  period  show  elaborate  combinations,  and 
these  characterize  the  details  of  the  French  style  also.  In 
both  cases  are  found  hangings  imitated  in  painted  wall 
decorations,  as  well  as  representations  of  niches,  canopies, 
and  other  architectural  details.  In  Fig.  89  (<?),  History  of 
Architecture  dud  Ornament,  Part  2,  is  shown  a  design  based 
on  the  intersection  of  a  number  of  circles  whose  centers  are 
found  at  the  intersection  of  evenly  spaced  vertical  and  hori- 
zontal lines,  thus  showing-  the  geometrical  construction, 
while  the  color  scheme  was  a  stenciled  pattern  of  gold 
against  a  pink  ground.  At  (/)  of  the  same  figure  the  wall 
is  divided  in  lozenge  forms  by  equally  spaced  diagonal 
lines;  a  fleur-de-lis  is  stenciled  in  gold  against  a  blue 
ground  in  every  alternate  lozenge  and  a  foliated  form 
against  a  gold  ground  in  the  others.  These  are  but  two  of 
an  unlimited  variety  of  designs  that  were  used  in  color 
decoration,  all  of  which  were  simple  in  character  and  carried 
out  as  repeating  diaper  ornament. 


44  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


DUTCH   AND   BELGIAN   GOTHIC 

(1225  A.  D.  TO  1520  A.  D.) 


INFLUENCES 

30.  Geographical. — Holland  and  Belgium  constituted 
what  was  known  as  the  Netherlands,  being  wedged  in  between 
the  German  empire,  France,  and  the  North  Sea  (see  Fig.  23). 
Belgium  was  under    French    rule    for    a   long    time,   while 
Holland  came  under  German  influences.     The  architectural 
style   in   these   countries,   therefore,   is   influenced  by   their 
geographical  position  and  their  political  relations. 

31.  Geological. — An  abundance  of  good  brick-making 
clay    is    found   throughout    the    Netherlands,    especially  in 
Holland,  and  brick  structures  are  therefore  characteristic  in 
these  countries.     Considerable  stone  was  also  used,  partic- 
ularly  in    Brussels    and   in    Tournai,    as    is    shown    in    the 
cathedrals  of  those  two  cities,  Figs.  24  and  26. 

32.  Climatic. — In  general  respects,  the  climate  of  the 
Netherlands    is    the    same    as    that   of    England,    but   with 
greater  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

33.  Religions. — Constant  wars  between  the  surround- 
ing nations  brought  the  Netherlands  successively  under  the 
control    of    France,   Germany,    and    Spain.     Therefore,    the 
ecclesiastical    architecture    was    affected   by    the    religious 
forms  of  the  country  that  was  dominant  during  the  erection 
of  each  particular  edifice. 

34.  Political  and  Historical. — Peculiar  conditions  of 
government  arising  from  the  tendency  of  the  people  toward 
industry  and  manufacture  caused  much  rivalry  between  the 
principal   manufacturing   cities.     In   the  numerous   wars  in 
which  the  Netherlands  were  involved,  either  directly  or  as 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  45 

the  bone  of  contention,  different  cities  sided  with  opposing 

nations,  and  the  architecture  of  each  developed  accordingly. 

Flanders  became  united  with  France  in  1585  when  Philip 

of  Burgundy,  first  duke  of  Valois,  married  Margaret  of  Flan- 


Fu;.  23 

ders,  and  subsequently  the  whole  of  the  Netherlands  came 
under  the  rule  of  the  dukes  of  Valois,  who  were  descendants 
of  the  French  kings. 


46  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

The  characteristic  structures  of  the  Netherlands  are  the 
town  halls  and  gildhalls,  which  rivaled  each  other  in  express- 
ing the  wealth  of  each  individual  community.  The  town 
halls  were  political  buildings  in  which  the  municipal  council 
met  for  the  government  of  the  city,  but  the  gildhalls  were 
essentially  the  homes  and  meeting  places  of  the  various 
societies  of  trades  and  crafts.  The  prosperity  of  the  mer- 
chants and  weavers  is  fittingly  reflected  in  the  great  gild- 
halls  at  Antwerp,  Ghent,  Brussels,  Louvain,  and  other  cities. 

The  various  gilds  so  characteristic  of  this  period  are  of 
two  kinds — the  merchants'  gilds  and  the  crafts'  gilds.  The 
former  probably  originated  in  England,  where  early  in  his- 
tory the  king  had  granted  certain  associations  of  tradesmen 
exclusive  rights  to  carry  on  trade  without  tolls  or  taxes. 
This  amounted  to  a  monopoly  and  the  merchants'  gilds 
exacted  a  period  of  apprenticeship  and  confined  the  applica- 
tions for  membership  to  their  own  sons  and  relations.  The 
crafts'  gilds  were  similar  in  character  and  their  essential  pur- 
pose was  a  monopoly  of  industrial  pursuits.  Members  of 
the  crafts'  gilds  were  sometimes  permitted  to  enroll  in  the 
merchants'  gilds,  and  were  then  permitted  to  carry  on  a 
retail  trade.  Otherwise  the  products  of  the  crafts'  gilds 
were  sold  to  the  merchants'  gilds  and  by  the  latter  retailed 
to  the  public.  All  articles  manufactured  by  the  crafts'  gilds 
were  stamped  with  the  gildhall  mark,  and  by  these  marks 
much  of  the  old  silver  and  gold  plate  can  be  recognized  at  the 
present  day.  The  gilds  were  subject  to  local  laws  in  the  cities 
wherein  they  were  chartered  and  therefore  used  their  utmost 
influence  in  the  enactment  of  local  ordinances.  The  gilds 
through  their  great  monopoly  became  immensely  wealthy 
and  in  times  of  danger  furnished  money  and  men  for  military 
service  to  defend  their  cities  against  others.  In  some  sec- 
tions, they  formed  leagues  and  maintained  a  military  organ- 
ization for  the  preservation  of  peace  in  the  interests  of  trade. 
During  the  middle  ages,  the  principal  cities  of  the  Netherlands 
were  the  richest  and  most  powerful  in  Europe,  and  such  was 
their  rivalry  that,  under  the  feudal  system,  they  were  almost 
constantly  at  war  with  one  another. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  47 


CHARACTERISTICS 

35.  Belgian  architecture  during  this  period  presented 
two  general  types:  the  high  part  farthest  from  the  coast  was 
German  in  character,  while  the  low  part,  commonly  known 
as  Flanders,  reflects  French  influences.  In  the  domestic 
buildings,  a  number  of  Spanish  details  are  discernible,  but  in 
the  development  of  their  town  halls,  a  type  of  architecture 
was  evolved  with  national  characteristics  that  are  unequaled 
in  any  other  country  of  Europe. 

One  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  Dutch  is  simplicity, 
and  in  their  ecclesiastical  structures  is  found  a  plain,  barren 
treatment  that  is  not  present  in  the  architecture  of  Belgium. 
It  is  unfortunate,  however,  that  at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance 
there  was  so  much  opposition  to  religious  detail  in  architec- 
ture, that  much  of  the  ornament  in  many  of  the  buildings 
was  destroyed. 

The  Netherlanders  were  intensely  religious,  but  at  the 
same  time  they  were  skilled  and  experienced  tradesmen  and 
therefore  expressed  themselves  architecturally  more  in  their 
secular  buildings  than  in  their  cathedrals.  Where  the  pride 
of  the  French  was  concentrated  in  their  cathedrals,  the  pride 
of  the  Netherlands  was  expressed  in  their  municipal  build- 
ings, gildhalls,  and  city  fortifications.  In  fact  the  wealth  of 
the  gilds  is  expressed  in  all  of  their  architecture  whether  it 
is  ecclesiastical  or  secular.  It  was  the  gilds  that  erected 
the  great  gildhalls  for  the  pursuit  of  their  crafts  and  trades, 
and  it  was  through  the  gilds  that  the  great  town  halls  were 
erected  to  house  the  administration  councils.  The  protec- 
tion of  the  commerce  of  the  cities  required  the  construction 
of  fortified  gates  and  it  was  the  gilds  that  made  these  both 
necessary  and  possible.  So  that  the  characteristics  of  the 
medieval  architecture  of  Holland  and  Belgium  are  expressed 
more  in  their  secular  buildings  than  in  their  cathedrals. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  these  powerful 
organizations  existed  in  other  countries  also,  but  they  did 
not  so  directly  affect  the  architectural  character  as  here  in 
the  low  countries. 

I  L  T  303—23 


NAVE 
*«***      + 


+      •      •      * 


ll! 


-*..  *u,    4-    .     .    .     . 

I        C^HOIR   §  NAVE: 

^-JU  ••£••... 


t 

* 


50  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


36.  Tournai  Cathedral. — In  ecclesiastical  architecture 
there  are  many  cathedrals  that  show  a  decided  inclination  in 
the  arrangement  of  their  plans  to  French  ideas.     The  cathe- 
dral at  Tournai,  Fig.  24,  presents  a  comparison  of  the  older 
Romanesque  style  and  the  newer  Gothic  in  the  matter  of 
height.     The  nave  of  this  beautiful  church  is  Romanesque, 
as  will  be  easily  seen,  while  the  choir  is  Gothic  of  the  best 
period.     The  breadth  of  the  two  parts  is  about  the  same, 
and  the  roof  of  the  aisles  rises  to  about  the  same  height 
both  at  the  west  and  the  east  ends.     The  nave  of  the  choir 
on  the  east,  however,  rises  about  twice  as  high  above  the 
aisles  as  does  the  nave  on  the  west. 

The  problem  that  thus  confronted  the  builders  was  the 
roofing  of  the  nave  of  a  building  at  a  greater  height  than 
could  be  accomplished  simply  by  the  use  of  heavy  walls 
to  withstand  the  thrust  of  the  roof,  or  vault.  This 
problem  was  solved  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  Notre  Dame,  Fig.  4;  that  is,  by  carrying  the  cen- 
tral walls  on  the  nave  piers  and  by  taking  up  the  thrust  of 
the  roof  vault  by  means  of  immense  flying  buttresses  carried 
over  the  surrounding  aisles.  The  choir,  or  east  end,  of 
Tournai  Cathedral  therefore  presents  much  the  same  appear- 
ance as  the  east  end  of  Notre  Dame,  while  the  nave,  or  west 
end,  is  much  lower,  in  accord  with  the  earlier  Romanesque 
system  of  building.  The  towers  flanking  the  transept  and 
at  the  crossing  give  great  prominence  to  this  part  of  the 
edifice,  while  the  west  end,  which  is  elaborate  in  both 
French  and  English  examples,  is  here  of  secondary 
importance. 

37.  Brussels  Cathedral. — Brussels  Cathedral,  the  plan 
of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  25  (a),  was  erected  in  1226  A.  D. 
This   building   is  the  earliest  example  of  Gothic  work  in 
Belgium,  and  probably  one  of  the  finest  in  the  country.     On 
the  eastern  end,  the    French  chevet  and   choir  are  partly 
developed,  and  the  whole  was  vaulted  with  stone  during  the 


52  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

14th  and  15th  centuries.  The  west  end  is  particularly 
imposing,  standing  as  it  does  on  a  terrace  approached  by 
two  flights  of  monumental  stairs,  as  shown  in  Fig.  26.  The 
nave  of  Brussels  Cathedral  is  much  loftier  than  the  aisles, 
and  two  tiers  of  flying  buttresses  are  required  to  take  up  its 
thrust,  as  shown  in  Fig.  27  (a).  The  sustaining  buttresses 
are  built  within  the  side  walls,  as  in  the  French  cathedrals, 
and  almost  the  entire  space  between  these  buttresses  is  taken 
up  by  windows,  as  is  shown  in  the  plan. 

38.  Antwerp  Cathedral. — Antwerp  Cathedral,  the  plan 
of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  25  (b),  is  remarkable  for  its  triple 
aisles  of  equal  height  and  its  very  narrow  transept  without 
aisles.  One  of  the  aisles  is  carried  around  the  choir,  form- 
ing a  chevet,  but  the  rest  of  the  plan  beyond  the  transept  is 
irregularly  cut  up  into  chapels.  The  three  aisles  each  side 
of  the  nave  are  of  unequal  width,  as  is  shown  in  the  section, 
Fig.  27  (£),  and  are  independently  covered  with  a  hip  roof. 
The  clearstory  therefore  extends  almost  to  the  top  of  the 
nave  arches,  and  the  triforium  is  omitted  entirely  (see 
Fig.  28).  The  nave  is  not  as  much  higher  than  the  aisles 
here  as  in  Brussels  Cathedral,  as  the  springing  point  of  the 
nave  vault  is  not  far  above  the  vaults  of  the  aisles.  The 
nave  is  narrower  in  proportion  to  its  height  than  the  nave  of 
Brussels  Cathedral,  and,  as  the  walls  are  thicker,  there  is  no 
necessity  for  flying  buttresses.  The  omission  of  flying 
buttresses  renders  unnecessary  also  the  low,  inclined  roof 
over  the  aisles,  as  in  the  French  and  English  cathedrals;  so 
we  find  here  a  high,  hipped  roof  quite  as  steep  as  that  over 
the  nave.  The  narrowness  of  the  nave  adds  to  the  appear- 
ance of  height  but  cramps  the  interior  effect.  The  west 
front,  Fig.  29,  was  finished  about  the  year  1518,  and  presents 
the  principal  characteristics  of  the  Late  French  style.  The 
florid  design  of  this  front  reflects  the  taste  of  the  wealthy 
tradesmen  of  that  period,  and  it  is  so  rich  that  the  redund- 
ance of  decorative  detail  may  be  overlooked.  Especially  is 
this  true  of  the  north  tower,  which  is  one  of  the  most  deli- 
cate pieces  of  tracery  decoration  to  be  found  in  Europe. 


BRUSSELS  CATHEDRAL 


ANTWERP 


53 


SECTION  THROUGH  NAVE 

<b) 

FIG.  27 


FIG.  28 


FIG.  29 


56  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


ANALYTICAL.   STUDY 


PLANS 

39.  The  cathedral  plans  in  the  Dutch  and  Belgian  Gothic 
architecture  were  short  and  wide,  somewhat  after  the  French 
model.     The    chevet    treatment    that    occurs    in    so    many 
instances   is    also    an   evidence    of    French    influence.     The 
transepts  were  small  and  projected  only  slightly  beyond  the 
body  of  the  plan. 

WALLS,    OPENINGS,    AND    ROOFS 

40.  The  characteristics  of  the  walls,  openings,  and  roofs 
of  the  Dutch  and  Belgian  Gothic  period  are  more  prominent 
in  secular  than  in  ecclesiastic  architecture  and  will  be  con- 
sidered in  Art.  119. 


COLUMNS 

41.  Round  piers,  occasionally  with  smaller  piers  attached, 
are  used  to  support  the  nave  walls,  but  the  clustered  pier 
so  common  in  the  English  style  is  rarely  seen  in  the 
Netherlands. 


ORNAMENT 

42.  Painted  ornament  was  not  popular  in  the  Netherlands, 
although  much  decorative  effect  was  obtained  by  various 
brick  and  tile  fillings.  The  wealth  of  the  tradesmen  caused 
much  of  the  ornament  to  be  elaborate  and  ostentatious,  but 
in  the  majority  of  cases  it  was  carried  out  with  a  taste  and 
refinement  that  is  characteristic  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

Moldings  and  other  decorative  details  lack  character  and 
possess  neither  the  boldness  of  the  French  nor  the  delicacy 
of  the  English.  The  greatest  activity  in  Belgian  and  Dutch 
Gothic  architecture  occurred  at  a  period  when  the  style  was 
on  the  decline  in  other  countries.  The  ornament  is  therefore 
of  an  inferior  grade. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  57 


GERMAN    GOTHIC 

(1270  A.  D.  to  1535  A.  D.) 


INFLUENCES 

43.  Geographical. — On    three    sides — east,   west,   and 
south — Germany  was  flanked  by  large   empires   possessing 
strong  national  differences   (see  Fig.  43,  History  of  Archi- 
tecture  and   Ornament,    Part    2).      This    situation    rendered 
communication  with  other  European  states  most  convenient, 
and  the  Rhine  River  flowing  through  the  north  contributed 
greatly  to  the  rise  and  development  of  the  cities  founded  on 
its  banks  at  the  time  Germany  was  a  province  of  Rome. 

44.  Geological. — In     Northern     Germany    there    is 
scarcely  any  building  material  except  clay,  and  brick  struc- 
tures  therefore   characterize  the  architecture  of  this  region 
more   than   of   any  other  country.     In  the  south  there  are 
several  stone  quarries,  and  immense  timber  tracts  exist  in 
the  northwest,  near  Hanover. 

45.  Climatic. — The  climatic  influences  are  the  same  as 
for  Romanesque  architecture. 

46.  Religions. — The  rule  of  bishops  in  Germany  was 
political  as  well  as  ecclesiastical,  and  the  government  of  the 
city  and  that  of  the  Church  were  practically  one  and  the  same 
thing.     This  system  was  closely  adhered  to  in  some  of  the 
principalities  until  the  close  of  the  18th  century. 

47.  Political  and  Historical. — The  gilds  and  societies 
of  craftsmen  rose  to  great  importance  in  Germany  during 
this  period  and  leagues  or  combinations  between  important 
cities  were  formed  in  the  interests  of  trade;  while  the  free- 
masons in  particular  are  credited  with  great  influence  in  the 
working  out  of  the  Gothic  designs.     There  are  no  existing 


58  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

records,  however,  and  the  individuality  of  the  architects 
during  this  period  is  known  in  only  a  few  cases. 

In  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  Germany  was  the  heart  and 
center  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
King  of  Germany  and  Emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
endeavored  to  curtail  the  liberties  of  the  cities  of  Lombardy, 
and  interfere  with  their  election  of  their  own  magistrates 
and  other  officers.  It  will  be  remembered  that  Lombardy 
was  taken  by  Charlemagne  and  united  to  the  Kingdom  of 
the  Franks  in  773  A.  D.  The  Lombards,  supported  by  the 
pope,  organized  a  league  of  cities  known  as  the  Lombard 
League,  to  oppose  Frederick,  and  they  succeeded  in  defeat- 
ing him  and  maintaining  their  liberties.  During  the  years 
between  1254  and  1274,  no  one  king  was  acknowledged  by 
all  the  German  principalities,  in  consequence  of  which  con- 
siderable lawlessness  existed.  This  is  known  as  the  period 
of  the  "Robber  Barons."  The  country  was  dominated  by 
feudal  lords  and  many  castles  were  built.  In  1274,  how- 
ever, the  house  of  Hapsburg  came  into  power,  under  which 
the  German  principalities  were  united  into  one  empire. 

That  the  useful  arts  did  not  decline  during  this  period  of 
confusion  was  due  to  a  combination  of  the  gilds  of  several 
cities,  known  as  the  Hanseatic  League,  which,  in  Northern 
Germany,  effected  an  alliance  of  the  great  commercial  towns 
for  mutual  protection  against  lawless  marauders.  The 
influence  of  this  league  was  so  great  that  the  arts  and  man- 
ufactures proceeded  in  the  towns  where  it  existed  without 
interruption  during  these  turbulent  times.  At  first  the 
League  aimed  solely  to  resist  the  unjust  extortions  of  the 
feudal  lords,  to  prevent  robbery  and  to  stimulate  commerce 
and  industry.  About  the  middle  of  the  14th  century  it 
became  so  powerful  that  it  monopolized  the  trade  of 
Northern  Europe.  It  maintained  armies  and  navies, 
made  war  against  and  defeated  the  kings  of  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  Norway,  compelled  Edward  IV  of  England 
to  increase  its  already  excessive  privileges,  and  finally 
became  so  intolerable  that  it  declined  almost  as  rapidly  as 
it  rose. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  59 


CHARACTERISTICS 

48.  Gothic  architecture  in  Germany  did  not  develop  so 
systematically  and  progressively  from  the  Early  Romanesque 
architecture  as  it  did  in  France  and  England.  In  many 
instances  it  was  borrowed  directly  from  the  French  style. 
The  Romanesque  style  prevailed  longer  in  Germany  than  it 
did  in  France,  and  no  Gothic  buildings  were  erected  before 
the  13th  century.  Gothic  architecture  was  adopted  by  the 
Germans  at  the  time  when  it  had  attained  its  highest 
development  in  France,  but  Germany  had  then  adhered  so 
long  to  the  Romanesque  style  that  she  could  not  abandon 
all  of  her  Romanesque  characteristics  when  she  erected  her 
structures  in  Gothic.  As  said  before,  in  Northern  Germany 
the  lack  of  building  material  caused  the  development  of  a 
style  in  brick,  as  was  the  case  with  the  Romanesque  style 
in  Lombardy. 

The  Germans  were  skilled  craftsmen  and  wood  construc- 
tion is  conspicuous  in  sections  where  other  building  material 
is  scarce.  Many  small  buildings  were  framed  of  wood  and 
filled  in  with  brickwork  between  the  wooden  construction. 
This  was  a  characteristic  Gothic  construction,  as  the  wood- 
work was  used  to  support  the  floors  and  roof,  while  the 
brick  walls  were  mere  screens  between  the  supports,  as  was 
the  case  with  the  cathedral  walls  between  the  aisle  buttresses. 
The  exposed  woodwork  was  frequently  elaborately  carved 
with  intricate  designs,  as  the  Germans  always  tend  to  com- 
plicity rather  than  originality  in  design.  Even  in  their  stone 
structures  there  is  much  intricate  carving,  and  the  spires 
of  the  German  cathedrals  are  so  elaborately  pierced  and. 
traceried  that  they  have  at  a  distance  the  appearance  of 
delicate  lace. 

Town  halls  and  gildhalls  exist  throughout  Germany,  as 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  the  German  cities  united  to  protect 
commercial  interests,  but  the  influence  of  these  leagues  and 
combinations  is  not  so  reflected  in  the  architecture  as  in 
Holland  and  Belgium. 


60 


62  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


EXAMPLES 

49.  Cologne    Cathedral. — The    plan  of   the    Cologne 
Cathedral  is  shown  in  Fig.  25  (c).     This  edifice  presents  the 
finest  example  of  the  Gothic  style  in  Germany.     It  strongly 
resembles  Amiens  Cathedral,  Fig.  2  (3),  in  plan  and  dimen- 
sions, the  eastern  end  being  almost  a  direct  copy.     It  is  the 
largest   cathedral   in  Northern   Europe,  being  468  feet  in 
length  and  275  feet  in  width.     The  choir  was  completed  in 
1322,  which  was  52  years  after  the  building  was  commenced, 
but  the  cathedral  as  a  whole  remained  unfinished  until  the 
19th  century.     The  nave  is  very  imposing,  being  155  feet  in 
height  from  the  tiles  to  the  vaults,  and  41  feet  6  inches 
between  the  supporting  piers.     The  spires  that  decorate  the 
western  end  are  characteristic  of  German  Gothic  style,  being 
pierced  with  elaborate  tracery,  which  gives  them  the  appear- 
ance of  open  lacework  (see  Fig.  30). 

50.  Ratisbon  Cathedral. — Ratisbon  Cathedral,  erected 
between  1275  and  1534  A.  D.,  possesses  a  symmetrical  plan 
with  an  octagonal  apse  at  the  eastern  end,  instead  of   a 
chevet,  as  in  the  French  plans.     The  western  fagade,  shown 
in  Fig.  31,  was  not  added  until  the  19th  century.     This  part 
of  the  structure  possesses  some  unusual  features,  such  as 
the  triangular  porch  in  the  center  and  the  octagonal  lantern 
over  the  central  gable.     The  two  towers  are  not  symmet- 
rical in  the  two  lower  stories,  but  are  alike  above,  and  the 
spires    of   lacelike    tracery,   which   is   characteristic  of   the 
German  style,  are  similar  to  those  of  Cologne. 

51.  Ulm  Cathedral.— Ulm  Cathedral,  Fig.  32,  differs 
from  the  preceding  example  in  that  it  possesses  a  single 
western  tower.     This  tower  is  529  feet  high,  is  richly  orna- 
mented with  tracery,  and  presents  a  solid  and  substantial 
design,  contrasting  strongly   with    the  previous  examples. 
This   structure  possesses  double   aisles,  over  which  flying 
buttresses  carry  the  thrust  of  the  nave  vault  to  the  sustain- 
ing buttresses  at  the  sides. 


FIG.  32 


I  L  T  303—24 


64  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


ANALYTICAL,    STUDY 


PLANS 

52.  The  plans  of  the  German  Gothic  cathedrals  were  a 
combination  of  those  developed  under  the  early  Romanesque 
style  and  the  adopted  plan  of  the  French  Gothic  cathedrals. 
The  chevet  does  not  seem  to  have  been  borrowed  as  gen- 
erally as  other  French  details,  although  it  is  found  in  the 
cathedrals  at  Cologne,  Magdeburg,  Lubeck,  and  Freiburg. 
Twin  towers,  with  pierced  spires  surmounting  them,  exist  at 
the  west  end  of  the  cathedral  at  Ratisbon,  Fig.  31,  and 
occasionally  a  single  central  tower  is  observed  over  the 
intersection  of  the  transepts  and  the  nave,  somewhat  after 
the  English  churches.  The  entrances  are  not  always  found 
on  the  west  end,  which  seems  to  have  been  characteristic 
of  French  and  English  cathedrals,  but  are  frequently  on  the 
north  and  south  sides,  as  in  the  Romanesque  plans. 


WALLS 

53.  The  arcaded  galleries  under  the  roofs  of  the  apses, 
so  characteristic  of  the  Romanesque  style,  were  duplicated 
in  the  German  Gothic  period  without  any  apparent  thought 
of  their  origin  or  meaning  (see  Art.  105,  History  of 
Architecture  and  Ornament ',  Part  2).  Tracery  was  largely 
employed  on  wall  surfaces,  and  mullions  in  the  windows 
frequently  divided  the  openings  inside. 


ROOFS 

54.  The  roofs  were  usually  vaulted,  although  wooden 
roofs  existed  in  some  cases.  The  vaulting  was  very  carefully 
constructed,  and  the  nave  bays  were  usually  square  with  two 
aisle  bays  connecting  them.  .  It  was  not  until  a  later  period  that 
the  vaulting  of  oblong  bays  was  attempted,  but  at  Ratisbon, 
Cologne,  and  elsewhere,  oblong  bays  became  general. 

A  unique  feature  of  some  German  Gothic  churches  is  the 
immense  roof,  covering  at  one  time  and  in  one  span,  the 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  65 

nave  and  both  aisles.  This  was  a  typical  German  system  of 
design  known  as  the  "Hall  church,"  and  was  made  possible 
through  the  aisles  and  the  nave  being  equal  in  height. 


COLUMNS 

55.  In  the  nave,  the  main  piers  are  used  to  support  the 
vaults,  as,  owing  to  the  great  height  of  the  aisles,  no  attempt 
was  made  to  introduce  semidetached  columns. 


OPENINGS 

56.  Double  tracery  windows  are  used  in  later  examples, 
and  the  tracery  was  exceedingly  elaborate.  The  character- 
istic of  these  openings  is  the  great  height;  in  many 
cases,  two  tiers  of  windows  were  used  because  the  aisles  were 
very  high.  In  the  northern  part  of  Germany,  the  clearstory 
starts  very  low  down  and  is  excessive  in  size,  thus  present- 
ing a  'great  expanse  of  stained  glass. 


ORNAMENT 

57.  Foliage  was  treated  in  a  naturalistic  way,  and 
boughs  and  branches  were  carved  in  interlacing  forms  of 
tracery,  which  is  a  characteristic  of  German  carved  orna- 
ment. The  carving  itself  is  usually  superior  to  the  design, 
and  the  intricate  tracery  in  some  of  the  windows  is  much 
more  interesting  as  a  technical  display  of  skill  than  as  an 
expression  of  grace  in  outline. 

During  this  period  sacrament  houses,  or  tabernacles,  were 
developed  in  the  form  of  lofty  tower-like  structures.  They 
were  usually  built  of  stone  and  against  the  wall,  but 
occasionally  they  were  isolated.  The  general  design  was  to 
represent  a  Gothic  spire  with  pierced-tracery  windows  and  a 
multitude  of  pinnacles  and  canopies,  all  carried  out  in  minia- 
ture. Stained  glass  and  ironwork  were  elaborately  treated, 
and  the  diaper  work  was  similar  to  the  French  but  with 
German  devices  instead  of  the  fleur-de-lis.  See  History  of 
Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  2,  Fig.  89  (d}. 


66  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


ITALIAN   GOTHIC 

(1235  A.  D.  TO  1450  A.  D.) 


INFLUENCES 

58.  Geographical. — Italy,  the  home  of  classic  art,  was 
separated  by  mountain  ranges  from  the  nations  of  Northern 
Europe  (see  Fig.  25,  History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament, 
Part   2).     The    Bremer    Pass    through    the    mountains   to 
Germany  was  the   only  means  of  communication  between 
that  country  and  Lombardy,   while  Venice   had  its  outlet 
through  its  maritime  relations  with  the  Orient.     It  is  evi- 
dent that  these  different  communities,  on  account  of  their 
positions  and  domestic  relations  with  other  countries,  must 
have  been  subjected  to  widely  different  influences. 

59.  Geological. — Northern  and  Central  Italy  supplied 
abundant  and  beautiful  marbles  that  were  highly  prized  as 
wall   decorations,  and  in  Florence,  Sienna,  Genoa,  Orvieto, 
Lucca,   and  other  places,   this  material  was  used  for  this 
purpose   without   carving   or   decorative    treatment.      Red, 
black,  and  white  marbles  existed  in  profusion,  and,  by  means 
of  these  stones,  stripes  and  panels  were  introduced  into  the 
side  walls  for  decorative  effects. 

60.  Climatic. — This   country  with  its  continuous  and 
brilliant  sunshine,  warm  summers,  and  mild  winters,  rendered 
the  construction  of  large  openings  undesirable.     Hence,  the 
windows  are  low  and  narrow  and  the  walls  are  thick,  so  as 
to  keep  out  the  glare  and  heat  of  the   Italian  summer,  a 
condition  that  would  not  lead  to  the  development  of  win- 
dow tracery.     Decorative  treatment  in  the  form  of  mosaics 
and  frescos  shows  the  influence  of  the  Romans  and  makes 
up  for  the  lack  of  inclination  that  the  Italians  showed  to 
construct  large  windows  and  fill  them  with  stained  glass. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  67 

61.  Religious. — On  the  death  of  Pope  Gregory  X,  in  the 
year  1276,  the  power  of  the  popes  at  the  head  of  the  Church 
was  lost,  and  the  succeeding  popes  were  under  the  influence 
of  the  king  of  France.    For  70  years  they  resided  at  Avignon 
in  France,  which  is  so  far  from  Rome  that  their  authority 
was  scarcely  felt  there.    A  rivalry  also  existed,  so  that  at  one 
time  there  were  two  popes,  this  state  of  affairs  continuing 
until  a  settlement  was  effected  by  the  Council  of  Constance, 
in  1415.     During  the  period  from  1250  to  the  beginning  of 
the    15th    century,    two    religious    factions   were  constantly 
quarreling  in  Italy  and  thus  materially  retarded  harmonious 
development. 

62.  Political    and     Historical. — After    Charlemagne 
(see  History  of  Architecttire  and  Ornament,  Part  2,  Art.  71) 
several   kings    succeeded    as    rulers    of    Italy,    the  last   of 
whom  being  dethroned,  Italy  fell  prey  to  the  ambitions  of 
several  feudal  lords  and  was  devastated  by  civil  wars,  and 
invasions  from  Hungary  and  from  the  Saracens,  until  the 
year  962,  when  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  was  again  restored 
under  Otho  I.     The  policy  of  this  emperor  was  to  reduce 
the  number  and  authority  of  the   feudal  nobles;   to   favor 
the  growth  of  cities  and  municipal  authority;  and  to  reduce 
the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  by  taking  part  himself  in 
the  pontifical  elections.     This  brought  about  bitter  conflicts 
between  the  pope  and  the  emperor,  which  continued  through- 
out the  reigns  of  their  successors.     In  1155,  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa,  who  was  elected  emperor  of  Germany,  effected  a 
reconciliation  and  was  crowned  by  the  pope  as  emperor  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire.     (See  Art.  47.)     Italy  was  divided 
into  small  principalities  and  cities,  between  which  there  was 
great   rivalry.      The    erection    of    the    great    cathedrals    at 
Siena,  Orvieto,  Florence,  Milan,  and  Lucca  was  due  to  the 
pride  of  these  communities  and  the  desire  that  no  neighbor- 
ing community  should  excel  in  architectural  construction. 
Numerous    town   halls   show  the  wealth  of   the    municipal 
institutions,  and  other  countries  considered  Italy  the  head  of 
arts  and  science,  learning,  and  commerce. 


68  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


CHARACTERISTICS 

63.  The  classic  forms  of  construction  and  decoration 
that  are  found  throughout  Italian  Gothic  architecture  can 
leave  no  doubt  that  this  style  never  had  a  fair  opportunity 
to  develop  itself.  The  high-pitched  roofs  that  characterize 
the  Gothic  style  in  other  countries  are  lacking  here.  The 
naves  apparently  possess  flat  roofs,  and  the  roofs  over  the 
aisles  are  masked  on  the  exterior  behind  a  screen  that  hides 
the  slope  of  the  roof  behind.  There  is  an  elaboration  of 
detail  and  carved  work,  but  the  moldings  are  flat  and  unim- 
portant, their  place  being  taken  by  colored  marbles.  But- 
tresses are  not  treated  either  structurally  or  decoratively, 
and  pinnacles,  therefore,  are  not  generally  prominent.  The 
cornice  around  the  walls  is  elaborately  treated  as  a  screen, 
and  heavy  porch  projections  characterize  the  entrances.  The 
sculptures  are  classic  in  style,  and  in  this  respect  are  prefer- 
able to  those  in  Northern  Europe,  but  they  do  not  associate 
themselves  so  intimately  with  the  architecture.  The  capitals 
are  Corinthian  in  form,  and  the  Roman  acanthus  is  constantly 
used  in  the  Gothic  foliage.  Mosaic  continues  to  be  seen,  as 
in  the  Roman  buildings,  and  decorated  moldings  of  terra 
cotta  take  the  place  of  carved  moldings. 

It  was  during  this  period  in  Northern  Italy  that  molded 
brickwork  was  developed  to  its  greatest  perfection.  The 
Italians  used  their  brick  in  an  original  and  proper  way. 
The  details  were  small,  and  the  interest,  elsewhere  developed 
by  great  projections  and  variety  of  shadow  effect,  was  here 
attained  by  variety  of  color  in  the  brickwork  itself.  Stones 
of  different  colors  were  used  in  patterns,  giving  special 
character  to  some  of  the  work.  The  result,  however,  is  a 
flatness  and  want  of  shadow  effect,  as  there  is  very  little 
projection  to  some  of  the  cornices.  This,  however,  was 
satisfactory  to  the  Italian  designers,  as  they  wanted  the 
material  to  express  in  the  design  its  own  characteristics  with- 
out interfering  with  its  architectural  purpose. 


70  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


EXAMPLES 

64.  Milan  Cathedral. — In  Northern  Italy,  Milan  Cathe- 
dral, Fig.  83  (a),  erected  by  the  first  Duke  of  Milan,  is  the 
most  important  ecclesiastical  structure  of  the  Italian  Gothic 
period,  but  it  is  not  a  characteristic  building  of  the  Italian 
Gothic    style.     It    shows    great    German    influence    both  in 
character  and  details.     This  structure  is  the  largest  of  the 
medieval  cathedrals,  with  the  exception  of  the  one  at  Seville, 
Spain,  and  it  is  built  entirely  of  white  marble.     The  roof  is 
flat  and  is  constructed  with  massive  marble  slabs  laid  over 
the   vaulting.     The  plan,  Fig.   34  (a),  shows  a  nave  with 
double  aisles  and  a  transept  crossing  the  nave  and  aisles, 
above  which  is .  erected  a  marble   spire  [Figs.  34  (a)   and 
35  (a)].    A  range  of  immense  shafts  extends  down  the  nave, 
and  these  shafts  support  the  roof  vault  and  give  an  imposing 
effect   on   the   interior,  as  shown  in  Fig.   33   (b).     On  the 
exterior,  Fig.  33   (a),  the   whole    design    is    expressive    of 
elaboration  and  lacelike  intricacy,  but  with  so  little  variety 
that  it  soon  becomes  tiresome. 

65.  Florence  Cathedral. — Florence  Cathedral,  the  plan 
of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  34  (b) ,  is  more  characteristic  of  the 
Italian  style.     Solid  walls  without  buttresses,  small  openings, 
and  unusually  wide  spacing  of  the  nave  arcades  characterize 
the  plan.     There  is  no  triforium,  and  the  clearstory  consists 
only  of  a  series  of  small  circular  openings,  which  are  placed 
high  in  the  nave  wall,  as  shown  in  Fig.  35  (b).     The  aisle 
windows  are   small  and   are  placed  high  above    the  floor, 
leaving  large  wall  spaces    both   outside    and   inside.     The 
walls  are  thick  and  present  no  buttresses  on  the  exterior, 
although  piers  are  built  against  the  walls  on  the  interior 
to  receive  the  vault  ribs. 

The  exterior  of  this  cathedral,  Fig.  36,  is  elaborately 
paneled  in  colored  marbles,  and,  though  entirely  devoid  of 
the  characteristic  Gothic  buttresses  and  pinnacles,  it  is 
wonderfully  rich  and  elaborate  in  design.  The  dome  is  not 
a  part  of  the  original  scheme,  but  was  added  during  the 


MOAN 


CT — "^ — ^a — rt-     f- — «*i — B^ — =tti — -— — — -n  qpfnnni 

!%%%;%*m^^ 

.    ->^.,,^,.»A     »  ^.— ^.-^-T^~,-«T  ...........    ..f./".':- 


JLONOITUDINAL  SECTION, 


J.ONGITUDWAL  SECTION. 

(ft) 
FIG.  35 


72 


§51 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


73 


Renaissance  period,  and  will  be  discussed  later  on.  The 
campanile,  or  bell  tower,  adjoining  the  west  front,  Fig.  37, 
is  built  of  red  and  white  marble  in  four  stories,  each  ot 
which  is  somewhat  higher  than  the  one  below,  thus  pro- 
ducing a  feeling  of  lightness  that  is  augmented  by  the 
increased  area  of  the  openings  in  the  upper  part.  The 
west  fagade  was  not  completed  until  the  19th  century,  but 
was  designed  to  harmonize  with  the  rest  of  the  building. 


FIG.  36 

Nothing  could  show  more  clearly  the  vast  difference 
between  the  characteristics  of  Gothic  architecture  of  North- 
ern and  Western  Europe  and  that  of  Italy  than  the  fagades 
of  the  cathedrals.  The  flying  buttresses  and  elaborately 
ornamented  doorways  of  France,  the  wide  transepts  and 
long  naves  of  England,  and  the  richly  traceried  and  lacelike 
spires  of  Germany  are  all  absent  from  these  Italian  compo- 
sitions, with  their  symmetrical  arrangement  of  parts  and 
numerous  horizontal  lines. 

66.  Siena  Cathedral. — Siena  Cathedral,  whose  plan 
is  shown  in  Fig.  34  (c),  is  another  example  of  wide  spacing 


FIG.  37 


FIG  88 


76  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

of  the  arcades  in  the  nave;  but,  here,  this  is  not  so  extreme 
as  at  Florence.  A  remarkable  dome  is  constructed  over  an 
irregular  hexagon  at  the  crossing,  but  not  in  the  center  of 
the  nave  as  in  other  examples.  The  walls  are  heavy  and 
only  slightly  buttressed,  and  the  windows  are  small  and 
high  above  the  floor.  Its  western  fagade,  Fig.  38,  is  elabo- 
rately ornamented  with  tracery  and  statuary,  but  is  far 
different  from  the  fagades  of  Western  Europe.  This  struc- 
ture is  built  of  black  and  white  marble  laid  in  strips  to  form 
geometrical  patterns,  and  is  pierced  by  three  great  portals 
of  equal  size  and  by  a  rose  window.  No  continuous  per- 
pendicular lines  occur  in  this  fagade,  but  numerous  horizontal 
elements  prevail.  The  pinnacles  on  each  side  of  the  central 
gable  are  not  centered  over  vertical  elements  in  the  first 
story,  but  over  piers  that  rest  on  a  horizontal  string-course 
across  the  front.  The  portal  heads  are  semicircular,  instead 
of  pointed,  and  are  included  under  low  gables  embellished 
with  crockets. 

67.  The  wide  spacing  of  the  nave  arcades  gives  a 
feeling  of  largeness  and  openness  that  does  not  exist  in 
edifices  in  which  the  columns  are  more  numerous.  The 
interior  of  St.  Croce,  Fig.  39,  exemplifies  this,  and  at  the 
same  time  demonstrates  the  fact  that  the  appearance  of 
great  width  detracts  from  the  feeling  of  depth  in  the  nave. 

In  Southern  Italy  the  plans  were  based  on  the  Roman 
basilica  type,  but  the  naves  have  timber  roofs  of  elaborate 
design,  showing  Oriental  influences.  The  pointed  arch  was 
frequently  used,  as  in  the  cloisters  of  the  cathedral  at 
Palermo,  Fig.  40.  These  arches,  however,  were  not  molded 
as  in  Northern  and  Western  Europe,  but  were  elaborated 
with  mosaic  and  tile.  One  of  the  strongest  characteristics 
of  these  southern  churches  was  the  lavish  display  of  mosaic 
decoration,  in  which  portraits  of  biblical  characters  were 
executed  in  a  crude,  archaic  style,  and  surrounded  with 
borders  of  arabesque  designs  in  gold  and  color.  The  lower 
walls  were  sheathed  with  white  marble,  with  bases  and 
borders  of  green  and  purple  porphyry. 


78  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


ANALYTICAL,   STUDY 


PLANS 

68.  The  influence  of  Roman  antecedents  is  clearly  shown 
in  the  plans  of  the  Italian  Gothic  style.  Here  an  endeavor 
is  made  to  create  a  great  central  court  in  the  churches,  as  at 
Florence  and  Siena  Cathedrals,  Fig.  34  (b)  and  (c).  The 
nave  bays  are  usually  set  out  in  square  compartments, 
while  the  aisles  are  in  oblong  compartments,  thus  reversing 
the  practice  of  Northern  Gothic.  Externally,  a  dome  is 
found  introduced,  as  at  Siena  and  Florence,  a  detail  that 
never  appears  in  Northern  Europe. 


WALLS 

69.  The  use  of  small  windows  set  high  above  the  floor 
leaves  vast  wall  spaces  unbroken  by  buttresses,  as  these 
walls  were  heavy  enough  to  withstand  the  thrust  of  the  roof 
members  without  such  assistance.  Their  omission,  how- 
ever, destroys  the  tendency  to  vertical  lines  in  the  fagades, 
and  a  lack  of  shadow  effect  results.  There  is  no  attempt  to 
emphasize  the  construction  in  the  decorative  treatment  of 
the  walls,  the  fagades  being  treated  independently  of  the 
roofs  and  other  structural  details  behind  them.  Variety  in 
light  and  shade  was  attempted  by  facings  of  marble  in  hori- 
zontal bands  of  two  colors,  in  contrast  to  the  Northern 
Gothic,  which  attained  a  light-and-shade  effect  through  the 
introduction  of  buttresses  and  other  vertical  elements. 

On  the  interior  of  the  cathedrals,  the  triforium  was  usually 
omitted,  as  at  Milan  and  Florence,  Figs.  33  and  35.  The 
clearstory  then  became  little  more  than  a  spandrel  of  the 
nave  vault  pierced  by  a  small,  and  usually  circular,  window. 
The  arrangement  of  these  arcades,  with  their  widely  spaced 
supports,  gave  the  interior  the  appearance  of  a  large  hall,  as 
in  Fig.  39,  rather  than  of  a  long  nave,  as  in  the  Northern 
Gothic. 


I  L  T  303—25 


80  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

ROOFS 

70.  The  structural  details  of  the  roof  form  no  part  of  the 
design  scheme.  The  roofs  are  usually  low,  as  the  climate 
does  not  require  a  steep  pitch,  and  they  are  therefore  hardly 
visible  from  the  streets.  The  end  gables,  when  they  exist, 
are  somewhat  masked  behind  high  screen  walls  richly 
ornamented  with  tracery  or  encrusted  with  marble  mosaic. 


COLUMNS 

71.  The  nave  piers  of  the  churches  are  singularly  clumsy 
and  inelegant.  Square  piers  composed  of  four  pilasters  set 
back  to  back  are  frequently  used,  as  are  also  heavy  round 
piers  with  Corinthian  capitals  and  classic  bases,  recalling 
Roman  influences.  These  were  widely  spaced  so  that  the 
long  perspective  effect  characteristic  of  the  naves  in  Northern 
Europe  was  never  attained. 


OPENINGS 

72.  The  windows  are  rarely  pointed  as  in  the  northern 
cathedrals,  because  the  formation  of  the  vault  did  not  require 
it.  Semicircular  heads  are  more  prominent,  and  some  open- 
ings are  simply  closed  over  with  a  lintel.  When  the  pointed 
arch  was  used,  it  was  frequently  designed  with  a  deep-molded 
keystone,  a  method  borrowed  from  the  semicircular  arch  of 
the  Romans,  but  having  no  real  significance  in  the  Gothic 
style,  as  with  the  pointed  arch  a  keystone  is  not  required. 


MOLDINGS 

73.  Roman  models  were  used  for  the  moldings,  but  with 
less  variety,  as  colored  marbles  gave  the  necessary  horizon- 
tal elements  where  required  and  vertical  elements  were  not 
in  much  demand.  Molded  elements  were  always  subor- 
dinate to  surface  decoration. 


81 


FIG.  41 


82  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


ORNAMENT 

74.  During  this  period,  the  art  of  the  fresco  painter 
was  greatly  developed  and  led  to  the  perfection  attained  in 
wall  decoration  during  the  succeeding  period.  Many  build- 
ings were  erected  devoid  of  all  manner  of  wall  treat- 
ment, and  depended  entirely  on  fresco  details  for  decorative 
effect.  In  carved  work,  the  traditions  of  ancient  Rome 
prevented  such  extremes  of  grotesque  as  characterized 
Western  Europe;  but  in  the  execution,  more  attention  was 
usually  given  to  accessories  than  to  the  general  design. 
On  the  altars,  tombs,  and  pulpits,  carving  and  mosaic  work 
were  lavished  unstintingly,  as  shown  in  Fig.  41  (a),  and 
further  ornamental  work  was  attained  in  the  colored  marble 
veneers  of  the  fagades  and  the  marble  mosaic  of  the 
pavements.  Traceried  screens  [Fig.  41  (b)  to  (/)]  were 
a  prominent  characteristic  of  the  palaces  and  other  secular 
buildings  (Art.  91). 

This  tracery  is  particularly  characteristic  of  the  Venetian 
Gothic,  and  though  based  on  no  such  structural  conditions 
as  the  tracery  work  in  England,  it  is  delightful  in  its 
intricacy  of  detail.  The  fagades  of  the  palaces  of  Venice 
being  limited  to  straight  water  fronts  would  necessarily  be 
tame  and  uninteresting  were  it  not  for  this  local  system  of 
design  that  introduces  strong  contrasts  of  light  and  shadow 
to  relieve  the  rectangular  elevations.  Land  was  too  scarce 
to  permit  of  strong  breaks  in  the  fagades  or  the  grouping 
of  the  masses  of  a  building  into  principal  and  subordinate 
parts.  The  climatic  conditions  were  not  favorable  to  large 
openings  to  relieve  the  broad  frontages,  and  the  narrowness 
of  the  canals  demanded  a  treatment  that  invited  close  inspec- 
tion. The  elevations  were  therefore  designed  to  consist  of 
recesses  and  balconies  behind  rich  traceried  screens  con- 
sisting of  the  pointed  arch  between  columns,  as  in  Fig.  41 
(6)  and  (c),  or  of  intersecting  semicircular  arches  extending 
over  alternate  columns,  as  in  (d).  The  tracery  work  some- 
times consisted  of  pointed  arches,  between  which  the  super- 
imposed wall  was  pierced  with  quatrefoils,  as  at  (e)  and  (/). 


§51 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


83 


SPANISH    GOTHIC 

(12.30  A.  I),  to  1450  A.  D.) 


INFLUENCES 

75.  Geographical. — Spain,  Fig.  42,  is  a  peninsula  in 
the  southwestern  part  of  Europe.  Mountain  ranges  divide 
the  country  into  several  sections  that  were  peopled  by  rival 
races  and  were  almost  constantly  at  war.  Andalusia,  until 


FIG.  42 


the  close  of  the  15th  century,  was  held  by  the  Moors,  who 
were  Mohammedans.  Their  kingdom  was  surrounded  by  a 
wall  of  mountains  and  contained  a  wondrously  fertile  plain, 
the  finest  in  the  entire  country.  Andalusia  originally 


84  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

included  all  of  Spain  south  of  the  Duero  and  Ebro  Rivers 
and  the  Guadarrama  Mountains.  After  the  capture  of  Toledo 
by  the  Christians,  at  the  end  of  the  llth  century,  the  Moors 
were  confined  to  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  country. 

76.  Geological. — Stone    was    generally    employed    in 
Spain,  although  granite   and  marble  were  also  used.     The 
Moors  used  rubble  work  with  brick  bonding,  and  remarkable 
effects  were  obtained. 

77.  Climatic. — The  climate  of  Spain  varies  materially, 
according  to  the  elevation.     Burgos,  in  the  north,  is  3,000 
feet  above  the  sea  and  is  exceedingly  cold  at  times,  while  a 
portion  of  the  south,  particularly  along  the  Mediterranean 
Coast,  is  tropical. 

78.  Religious. — Constant   warfare    with    the    Moham- 
medan Moors  effected  a  feeling  of  unity  between  the  Chris- 
tians   of    Spain,   and   thus  gave    the  Church    great   power. 
The  cause  of  the  wars  was  the  hatred  toward  the  Moorish 
race,  as  well  as  the  opposition  to  the  Mohammedan  religion. 
It  was  fortunate  for  society  that  the  Church  had  such  influ- 
ence in  that  barbarous  age,  for  at  that  time  the  priest  and 
the  monk  together  established  the  outward  order  and  the 
inward  life  of  the  world.     In  fact,  they  often  had  greater 
authority  than  a  chief  or  a  king.     The  cathedral  and  the 
monastery   were   centers    of   power   for   good.     There    the 
ignorant  were  taught,  the  helpless  protected,  the  poor  shel- 
tered, and  the  starving  fed.     The  monasteries  also  served  as 
the  hotels  of  the  day,  and  hospitality  to  travelers  was  a  chief 
duty.    The  Church,  too,  knew  no  distinction  of  rank  or  class. 
A  slave  might  become  a  priest,  a  priest  a  bishop,  a  bishop  a 
pope.     Especially  was  this  influence  of  the  Church  of  value 
when  there  was  no  uniform  law  to  supreme  civil  authority, 
and  when  invasions  and  civil  wars  were  constantly  filling  the 
world  with  violence,  bloodshed,  and  desolation. 

79.  Political  and  Historical.— When  the  Romans  left 
Spain,  the  Vandals  of  the  African  Coast  took  possession,  after 
which  the  country  was  invaded  by  the  Moors  of  North  Africa, 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  85 

and  for  800  years  their  influence  was  continuous.  Their  con- 
structions, which  still  remain  at  Cordova  and  Granada, 
express  the  richness  of  their  architecture  in  an  exuberance  of 
intricate  detail  in  which  the  rich  color  effect  is  remarkable. 

In  History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  2,  Arts.  36 
to  38,  mention  has  been  made  of  the  rise  of  the  Mohammedan 
tribes  and  their  invasion  of  Western  Europe.  The  Moors 
were  a  branch  of  these  Mohammedan  tribes,  and  although 
they  invaded  Southwestern  Europe  as  far  as  Tours  in  France, 
they  were  driven  out  by  Charles  Martel  and' confined  to  the 
Spanish  peninsula. 

The  beginning  of  the  llth  century  found  the  old  Moham- 
medan Dominions  in  Northern  Spain  divided  into  the  Chris- 
tian states  of  Castile,  Leon,  Navarre,  Aragon,  and  Portugal, 
and  all  these  states  were  united  in  the  endeavor  to  drive  the 
Mohammedans  into  Andalusia.  The  kingdoms  of  Navarre, 
established  in  A.  D.  873,  Castile  1026,  Aragon  1035,  Leon 
1037,  etc.,  soon  united  under  the  banners  of  Castile  and 
Aragon,  while  Andalusia  was  still  held  by  the  Moors.  After 
the  capture  of  Toledo  (the  Moorish  capital),  in  1084,  and  the 
battle  of  Tolosa,  in  1212,  the  Mohammedan  influence  grad- 
ually declined.  Under  Ferdinand  III,  King  of  Castile  and 
Leon,  Seville  and  Cordova  were  taken,  1217  to  1252,  and 
Gothic  art  took  root  and  grew,  assisted  by  the  wealth  of  the 
conquered  Moors.  Through  the  marriage  of  King  Ferdinand, 
of  Aragon,  and  Queen  Isabella,  of  Castile,  all  the  small  king- 
doms except  Andalusia  were  united  in  the  single  kingdom  of 
Spain.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  both  ardent  Christians,  com- 
menced a  vigorous  campaign  against  the  Moors,  during  which 
the  King  and  Queen,  together  with  the  entire  court,  moved 
with  the  army,  thus  carrying  royal  wealth  and  influence,  into 
the  southern  provinces.  In  1491,  when  Granada,  the  last 
stronghold  of  the  Moors,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Christians, 
the  entire  peninsula  of  Spain  came  under  the  rule  of  a  single 
sovereign. 

Joanna,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  married 
Philip,  son  of  Emperor  Maximilian,  of  Germany,  in  1496, 
thus  making  Spain  a  part  of  the  great  German  empire. 


86  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


CHARACTERISTICS 

80.  In  Southern  Spain,  Gothic  art  was  always  more  or 
less  under  Moorish  influence.  The  early  churches  of  the 
Spanish  conquerors  seem  to  have  been  executed  entirely  in 
Moorish  art.  This  influence  is  expressed  in  the  introduction 
of  Mohammedan  details,  such  as  the  horseshoe  arch  and  the 
pierced  tracery  of  Moorish  design.  The  window  openings 
are  entirely  filled  by  intricate  fretwork  screens,  which  are  rich 
in  detail  and  elaborate  in  design.  In  other  places,  Gothic 
buildings  are  decorated  with  intricate  geometrical  surface 
ornament,  in  which  foliated  forms  are  introduced,  thus  dis- 
tinguishing them  from  the  Moorish  designs  in  which  no 
animal  or  vegetable  forms  were  used.  The  Gothic  style 
was  best  developed  in  the  extreme  north,  where  French 
influences  were  felt. 

Leon  Cathedral  was  modeled  after  Amiens,  but  exceeds  it 
in  the  expanse  of  window  openings.  Broad  surfaces  and 
horizontal  lines,  derived  from  Roman  influences,  characterize 
Spanish  art  the  same  as  they  did  Italian  art,  but  the  clear- 
stories in  many  of  the  Spanish  cathedrals  are  characteristic 
features. 

The  average  inhabitant  of  Spain  was  indifferent  to  plastic 
art,  the  national  artistic  talents  being  limited  to  music.  It 
mattered  little  to  him  whether  his  church  was  Gothic  or 
Romanesque,  so  long  as  it  was  dedicated  to  his  favorite 
saint.  Spain  developed  no  architecture  of  its  own.  All  is 
borrowed.  Byzantine  grotesque  and  Moorish  arabesque 
are  inherited  from  the  Goths  of  the  North  and  the  Moors  of 
the  South.  The  magnificence  displayed  in  the  cathedral 
interiors  is  due  to  the  Oriental  spirit  that  still  throbbed  in 
the  veins  of  the  country,  as  the  Moors  inhabited  Southern 
Spain  for  800  years. 


FIG.  43 


88  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


EXAMPLES 

81.  Burgos  Cathedral. — Burgos  Cathedral  was  built  at 
the  instance  of  an  English  bishop  and  had  a  French  model 
as  its  prototype.     The  former  influence  may  account  for  the 
magnificent  lantern  at  the  crossing,  while   the  latter  may 
have  governed  the  plan.     The  plan  presents  a  Latin  cross 
with  nave,  aisles,  and  transepts,  but  owing  to  additions  on 
all  sides,  except  the  west  front,  the  plan  has  become  very 
irregular  and  unsymmetrical.     The  original  transepts  pro- 
jected only  slightly,  and  the  aisle  was  carried  around  the 
east  end,  forming   a  chevet.     Beyond  the  chevet,  chapels 
were  arranged  that  materially  affected  the  exterior  design. 

The  interior  of  this  cathedral,  Fig.  43,  is  a  view  down  the 
transept  toward  the  south  end,  and  shows  the  massive  piers 
that  support  the  great  octagonal  lantern  over  the  crossing. 
The  florid  ornament,  the  richly  carved  canopies  containing 
effigies  of  the  saints,  and  the  intricate  traceries  are  all 
characteristic  of  the  Spanish  Gothic.  The  effect  of  the 
lantern  itself  is  somewhat  like  a  tall  dome  whose  walls, 
supported  on  pendentives,  are  pierced  by  lancet  windows 
and  entirely  covered  with  an  intricate  arrangement  of 
sculptured  arabesques,  statues,  ribs,  and  small  columns. 
The  ornamentation  is  as  crowded  as  the  leaves  of  a  tree,  and 
though  the  structure  is  gigantic  in  its  proportions,  it  is  as 
delicate  as  a  piece  of  filigree. 

82.  Cathedral    of    St.    Gregorio. — The    entrance    to 
St.  Gregorio   Cathedral,  at  Valladolid,  shows  the  effect  of 
Moorish     influence    on    Spanish    design.     The    decorative 
detail,  as  in  all  Spanish  examples,  is  elaborate  and  minute, 
the    carving   being  extremely  lacelike  in  its  delicacy;  but 
there  is  no  suggestion  of  structural  conditions — no  architec- 
tural  significance    of   the    ornamental    details.     The  portal 
shown  in  Fig.  44  is  an  example  of  florid  Gothic  ornament, 
rather  than  of  Gothic  architecture.     Strip  the  ornament  from 
this   edifice   and   the   architectural    condition   would    remain 
unchanged.     Yet,  withal,  the  effect  commands   admiration 


FIG.  44 


90  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

by  its  beautiful  intricacy  and  the  patient  devotion  of  the 
sculptor  to  the  glorification  of  his  religious  ideas.  Here, 
ostentatious  display  of  details  contrasts  with  the  devoted 
simplicity  of  the  Northern  Gothic,  but  both  are  the  outward 
expression  of  the  same  sentiment  from  two  widely  different 
races  of  people. 

83.  Segovia  Cathedral. — Segovia  Cathedral,  Fig.  45, 
although  erected  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century, 
adopted  the  wide  nave  and  the  semicircular  chevet  of 
French  origin.  The  nave  demands  strong  buttresses  to 
withstand  the  thrust,  while  the  chevet  introduces  that  char- 
acteristic east  end  with  radiating  flying  buttresses,  as  in  the 
French  cathedrals.  There  is  more  structural  detail  and  less 
intricate  ornamentation  on  the  exterior  of  the  •  Segovia 
Cathedral  than  in  many  other  Spanish  examples,  and  there- 
fore more  Gothic  feeling,  although  the  construction  dates  from 
the  Early  Renaissance  period.  The  hemispherical  dome 
over  the  square  tower  at  the  crossing  and  the  dome  over 
the  western  tower  are  in  no  way  harmonious  with  Northern 
Gothic  ideas,  but  the  strongly  marked  buttresses  with  pan- 
eled sides  and  numerous  vertical  elements  are  similar  to 
later  Gothic  treatment  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  Such 
is  the  case  with  nearly  all  examples  of  Spanish  Gothic 
architecture.  The  style  does  not  possess  sufficient  origi- 
nality to  be  national  in  development,  nor  has  it  borrowed 
sufficiently  from  any  source  to  be  classed  entirely  with  any 
foreign  development.  The  Moorish  surroundings  affected 
much  of  the  detail  in  some  localities,  while  in  others  the 
cathedrals  were  built  on  the  sites  of  ruined  Mohammedan 
mosques.  Such  was  the  case  with  the  Cathedral  of  Seville, 
which  is  the  largest  medieval  cathedral  in  Europe.  It  bears 
some  resemblance  to  Milan  Cathedral,  but  its  exterior  is  not 
pleasing  and  its  skyline  is  monotonous.  Its  plan  includes  a 
nave  and  double  aisles  with  side  chapels  as  in  other  cathe- 
drals, but  its  proportions  have  no  precedent  in  Christian 
architecture,  as  it  was  built  to  fit  the  space  occupied  by  the 
previous  mosque. 


92  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


ANALYTICAL   STUDY 


PLANS 

84.  The  plans  of  the  Spanish  cathedrals  are  wide  in 
comparison  with  the  length.  The  choir  is  usually  west  of 
the  crossing.  The  dome  over  the  crossing  is  similar  in 
treatment  to  examples  found  in  Southern  France.  Tra- 
ceried,  open  spires  surmount  the  towers  at  the  west  end, 
similar  to  these  details  in  Germany. 


WALLS 

85.  The  walls  present  an  inclination  toward  French 
ideas,  and  in  late  examples,  extreme  florid  ornamentation 
characterizes  their  treatment. 


ROOFS 

86.  The  roofs  were  vaulted,  but  vaults  were  developed 
in  decorative  rather  than  in  constructive  features.  The  tra- 
ceries, bosses,  and  vault  ribs  are  rich  in  effect,  although 
the  composition  and  design  cannot  compare  with  the 
English  vaulting  in  interest. 


COLUMNS 

87.  The  lantern  at  the  crossing  emphasized  the  central 
piers,  as  at  Burgos,  where  they  are  circular  in  plan  and 
very  massive.  The  columns,  in  Seville  Cathedral,  were 
great  piers  for  supporting  the  arcades,  and  the  carved  cap- 
itals, in  characteristic  form,  were  introduced  in  pairs. 


OPENINGS 

88.  The  openings  were  large  and  numerous,  and  the 
triforium  was  sometimes  glazed,  as  was  also  a  part  of  the 
wall  surface  of  the  clearstory.  Stained  glass  was  exten- 
sively used. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  93 


MOLDINGS 

89.  Spanish  moldings  were  based  on  French  ideas  with 
the  introduction  of  local  motifs.  They  are  lacking  in  refine- 
ment of  conception,  as  are  all  details  of  Spanish  architec- 
ture. In  a  few  isolated  cases,  the  moldings  are  well  chosen 
and  well  placed,  but  these  are  exceptions,  and  are  in  no  way 
characteristic  of  the  Spanish  style. 


ORNAMENT 

90.  In  the  Spanish  churches,  the  reredos,  or  screen 
behind  the  altar,  was  richly  ornamented,  being  often  as  wide 
as  the  nave  and  reaching  to  the  vaulting.  It  was  usually 
constructed  of  stone,  and  was  treated  with  canopies  and 
niches  containing  figures,  elaborate  paneling  being  placed 
between.  The  painting  was  naturalistic,  and  the  gilding 
was  applied  so  solidly  as  to  give  the  effect  of  real  metal. 
Much  s'culpture,  frequently  life-sized  figures,  was  introduced, 
and  stained  glass,  heavy  in  style  and  gaudy  in  colors,  and 
elaborate  grilles  in  hammered  and  chiseled  iron  bars  relieved 
by  figures  beaten  in  repousse  were  also  employed.  These 
iron  grilles,  called  rcjas,  form  one  of  the  most  characteristic 
details  of  the  Spanish  style. 

On  the  exterior,  numerous  sculptured  figures  were  intro- 
duced, and  these  were  intermingled  with  heraldic  devices 
and  running  ornament  until  the  panels  of  the  walls  were 
completely  filled  with  decorative  treatment.  An  excellent 
example  of  this  is  shown  in  the  door  of  Valladolid  Cathedral, 
Fig.  44. 

A  characteristic  of  Spanish  art  is  the  demand  for  realism, 
no  matter  how  inappropriate  it  may  be.  Simple  sculpture  is 
not  sufficient,  and  as  a  result  the  statues  are  colored  and 
frequently  dressed  in  real  clothes.  As  a  result  of  this  tend- 
ency, many  of  the  sculptured  figures  of  Spain  look  like 
waxwork,  and  the  skill  of  the  plastic  artist  is  hidden  beneath 
the  draperies. 


94  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


REVIEW    EXERCISES 

1.  Describe    the    contrasting    characteristics    of    the    French    and 
English  cathedral  plans  and  state  why  the  general  system  of  planning 
is  less  uniform  in  France  than  in  England. 

2.  (a)  What  characteristics  of  the  cathedral  interiors  is  peculiar  to 
France  more  than  any  other  country?    (b)  What  contrasting  character- 
istics distinguish  the  interior  effects  of  French  and  English  cathedrals? 

3.  (a)  Why  are  flying  buttresses  more  prominent  in  France  than 
in  England?  and  (b)  wall  buttresses  more  prominent  in  England  than 
in  France? 

4.  What  are  the  contrasting  characteristics  of  French  and  English 
cathedral  roofs? 

5.  What  are  the  contrasting  characteristics  of  French  and  English 
(a)  nave  columns?     (b)  doorways?     (c)  window  tracery? 

6.  What  are  the  characteristic  Gothic  structures  in  the  Netherlands? 

7.  What  peculiarity  concerning  the  entrances  of  German  cathedrals 
are  characteristic  of  that  country? 

8.  What    (a)   climatic;    (b)   geological;    (c)  religions;    (d)  political 
influences  affected  the  character  of  Italian  Gothic  architecture? 

9.  (a)  What  are  the  characteristics  of  Italian  Gothic  architecture? 
(6)  What  are  the  contrasting   characteristics  of   Italian  Gothic  and 
other  Gothic  cathedral  plans? 

10.  In  what  way  does  the  roofing  system  affect  the  Italian  Gothic 
style? 

11.  (a)  What  part  of  Spain  was  occupied  by  the  Moors  up  to  the 
end  of  the  XI  century?     (b)  What  are  the  natural  boundaries  of  this 
section? 

12.  What  foreign  influences  affected  the  Spanish  Gothic  style? 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  95 


SECULAR  ARCHITECTURE 


INTRODUCTION 

91.  As  cathedrals  were  the  first  important  structures  of 
the  middle  ages,  during  which  Gothic  construction  and 
ornamentation  were  developed,  the  studies  thus  far  have 
been  confined  to  the  development  of  the  Gothic  system  in 
these  buildings.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  every  build- 
ing that  was  erected  in  Western  Europe  throughout  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries  was  in  the  Gothic  style.  Among 
these  were  the  feudal  castles,  which  were  first  erected  as 
fortresses  and  afterwards  developed  into  residences,  and  the 
great  gildhalls  and  municipal  buildings  erected  by  the  crafts- 
men and  citizens  of  the  growing  municipalities.  The  archi- 
tecture of  these  buildings  varied  in  different  localities,  just 
as  that  of  the  cathedrals  did,  but  their  importance  architec- 
turally is  increased  by  their  consideration  as  monuments  of 
utility  designed  to  suit  the  demands  of  different  purposes. 
All  cathedrals  were  erected  for  one  purpose,  and  all  cathe- 
dral plans  presented  the  same  general  arrangement.  More- 
over, these  plans  are  the  one  detail  that  did  not  originate 
in  the  Gothic  or  the  Romanesque  style.  The  nave,  aisles, 
transepts,  and  choir  are  all  inheritances  from  the  old  Roman 
basilica. 

Cathedral  building  was  progressive,  but  wholly  in  a 
structural  sense.  The  problem  in  all  countries  was  practic- 
ally the  same:  To  cover  with  a  stone  roof  a  long  narrow 
plan  and  to  do  this  with  the  greatest  economy  of  material. 
The  feudal-castle  plan,  however,  was  always  irregular  to 
conform  it  to  the  hill  on  which  it  was  built;  and  economy  of 
material  was  impractical,  as  the  defensive  walls  must  needs  be 
of  immense  thickness.  Planning  and  construction,  therefore, 
developed  along  different  lines  in  these  secular  buildings. 

I  L  T  303—26 


96  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


MILITARY  AND  DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 

92.  The  castles  and  residences  of  the  nobles  formed  an 
important  part  of  the  architecture  of  the  middle  ages,  and 
established  details   and  peculiarities  of  plan  that  reflected 
the    social    conditions    of    the    times    and    that   have   been 
retained   in    a   more    or   less    modified   form  down  to    the 
present    day.      (See  History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament, 
Part  2,  Arts.  45  to  47.)     Though  these  castles  were  pri- 
marily military  posts,  they  were  at  the  same  time  the  official 
residences  of  the  lords  or  barons  that  governed  the  fiefs, 
and  while  they  were  built  in  accordance  with  the  medieval 
ideas  of  defense,  their  planning  is  expressive  of  the  feudal 
relation  of  the  vassal  to  his  lord,  who  exacted  the  vassal's 
services  and  therefore  maintained  him. 

93.  In  the  12th  century,  the  principal  features  of  the 
castles  consisted  of  a  large  outer  court,  or  bailey,  containing 
the  stables  and  storehouses,  and  an  inner  court.     This  court 
was   either   partly    or  entirely  surrounded   by  the  various 
apartments    of  the  castle,   Fig.   46,   all  of  which  was   sur- 
rounded by  a  high  wall  with  a  parapet  and  ramparts  at  the 
top,  while  a  deep,  water-filled  moat,  or  ditch,  surrounded  the 
base.     The  moat  was  crossed  by  a  drawbridge  that  could 
be  raised  when  not  in  use,  and  the  entrance  to  the  courts 
was  effected  through  a  fortified  gateway,  which  was  pro- 
tected when  closed  by  a  huge  iron  gate,  or  portcullis  that 
could  be  raised  and  lowered  in  grooves  like  a  window  sash 
[see  Fig.  59  (£)]. 

The  castle  proper  surrounding  the  inner  bailey  consisted 
of  a  number  of  apartments.  The  principal  one  was  known 
as  the  great  hall,  which  was  the  main  living  room  of  the 
castle,  where  all  meals  were  served,  where  all  business  was 
transacted,  and  where  such  amusements  and  pastimes  as  the 
age  afforded  were  indulged  in.  The  keep,  or  donjon,  a  forti- 
fied tower  several  stories  in  height,  was  entirely  surrounded 
by  a  water-filled  moat.  This  tower  was  the  final  place  of 
refuge  in  time  of  siege  and  the  last  point  of  defense  when 


§51 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


97 


98  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

all  other  towers  surrendered.  Around  the  outside  of  the 
keep,  supported  on  projecting  corbels,  was  a  parapet  wall, 
the  floor  behind  which  was  pierced  between  the  supporting 
corbels  with  openings,  through  which  the  besieged  could 
either  shoot,  or  pour  boiling  oil,  molten  lead,  etc.  on  the 
besiegers  below.  These  openings,  called  machicolations,  were 
a  characteristic  detail  of  the  towers  of  every  feudal  residence. 
In  the  earliest  days,  the  castle  was  heated  by  means  of  an 
immense  fire-grate  located  in  the  center  of  the  room,  the 
smoke  from  which  passed  through  openings  in  the  roof, 
called  louvers.  In  the  13th  century,  however,  fireplaces  were 
erected  at  the  sides  or  ends  of  the  rooms,  and  the  smoke 
was  carried  off  by  means  of  chimneys. 

94.  In  the  14th  century,  the  great  hall  was  divided  into 
two  apartments,  one  of  which  was  known  as  the  withdrawing 
room,  where  the  lord  and  his  family  could  retire  after  meals, 
but  the  hall  was  still  retained  for  business  and  dining  pur- 
poses.    Sleeping  rooms,  when  introduced,  were  often  dark, 
cheerless    apartments,    and  were    designated   by   the   term 
chamber,  a  word  derived  from  the  Latin,  meaning  a  dark  vault. 

With  the  growth  of  the  royal  power,  the  fortifications 
became  a  less  prominent  feature,  as  the  danger  of  petty 
wars  between  the  nobles  was  decreased.  In  the  15th  cen- 
tury, the  plans  of  the  castles  became  more  regular,  generally 
rectangular  in  outline,  but  they  still  retained  the  inner 
bailey,  or  court,  as  in  Fig.  46  (b] .  These  details  developed 
differently  in  different  countries,  but  the  general  character- 
istics prevailed  throughout. 

95.  The  early  castles  were  usually  located  on  the  top  of 
a  hill,  with  the  ground  sloping  away  from  all  sides  but  one, 
and  on  this  one   side  was  the  principal  entrance.     On  the 
lower  slopes  of  the  hill  was  the  town,  or  citl,  as  it  was  called, 
where  the  vassals  of  the  nobleman  grew  their  vines  and  plied 
their   trades;    but    they    held    their   various  pieces  of  land 
subject  to  the  rule  and  under  the  tenure  or  lease  of  the  lord 
of  the  castle.     Frequently,  the  cite"  itself  was  surrounded  by 
a  fortified  wall,  and  the  castle  was  erected  as  a  stronghold 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  99 

within.  The  lord,  in  his  turn,  held  his  estate,  or  fief,  subject 
to  some  higher  political  power,  as  a  duke,  or  even  the  king, 
and  his  failure  to  comply  with  the  demands  of  his  superior 
would  usually  bring  down  a  war  upon  his  shoulders  and 
necessitate  the  calling*  of  all  his  vassals  to  the  defense  of 
the  castle.  These  petty  wars  were  frequent,  and  generally 
resulted  either  in  the  partial  demolition  of  the  castle  or  in 
its  entire  subjugation  and  the  passing  of  the  fief  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy. 

In  either  case,  the  vassals  were  compelled  to  assist  in  the 
repair  of  the  damaged  castle  walls.  Each  time  this  rebuild- 
ing became  necessary,  some  more  or  less  important  change 
would  be  made  in  the  construction,  owing  to  experience 
gained  with  each  war.  Consequently,  the  architecture  of 
these  castles  was  rapidly  progressive,  until  the  use  of  gun- 
powder in  warfare  rendered  the  castle  system  of  defense 
practically  useless.  None  the  less,  the  castle  was  the 
earliest  form  of  nobleman's  residence,  and  therefore  the 
prototype  of  the  modern  mansion.  Long  after  fortified  resi- 
dences became  obsolete,  the  castellated  form  was  used  even 
for  a  city  residence,  and  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  15th 
century  many  prominent  features  of  both  plan  and  elevation 
strongly  resembled  those  of  the  days  of  the  feudal  system. 

This  was  in  many  cases  due  to  the  fact  that  a  more  modern 
building  was  erected  over  the  foundations  of  the  old  feudal 
residence.  The  plan  of  the  Chateau  at  Blois,  Fig.  46  (b), 
was  necessarily  irregular  on  account  of  the  site  on  which 
the  castle  was  erected,  and  this  irregularity  was  retained 
when  in  the  14th,  15th,  and  16th  centuries  the  three  wings 
were  successively  rebuilt  on  the  foundations  of  the  older 
edifice.  Other  castles  were  not  even  rebuilt,  but  were  simply 
remodeled  within  the  old  walls,  thus  retaining  many  char- 
acteristic features  that  advancement  in  domestic  conditions 
had  rendered  obsolete. 

The  following  examples  have  been  selected  as  illustrating 
the  characteristics  of  the  Gothic  style  of  residence,  but 
several  of  them  were  erected  after  the  Gothic  style  had  been 
superseded  by  the  Renaissance. 


100  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


EXAMPLES 


CASTL.ES    AND    CHATEAUX 

96.  Bodiam  Castle. — In  Fig.  47  (a)  is  shown  Bodiam 
Castle,  in  England,  with  its  surrounding  moat.     The  square 
tower  was  used  more  in  England  than  on  the  Continent. 
The  walls  were  usually  crowned  with  the  indented  parapet  all 
around,  while  the  machicolations  were  generally  confined  to 
the  towers.     The  openings  in  the  walls  were  simply  narrow 
slits  through  which  bolts  and  arrows  could  be  fired  from  bow 
guns  and  arbalests,  but  were  too  small  to  serve  as  targets 
for  the  besiegers. 

97.  Chateau  Pierrefonds. — The  Chateau  Pierrefonds, 
in  France,  Fig.  47  (£),  presents  the  typical  French  form  of 
structure,  although  the  large  windows  are  of  a  later  date. 
The  circular  towers  at  the  angles  and  the  machicolations 
around  them  and"  along  the  curtain  walls  may  be  found  in 
nearly  all  the  chateaux  of  feudal  France. 

As  the  middle-age  nobleman  began  to  take  more  interest 
in  domestic  architecture  and  details  of  planning  were  intro- 
duced that  tended  toward  greater  domestic  comfort,  he 
remodeled  his  feudal  stronghold  to  suit  the  new  conditions, 
and  the  result  is  seen  in  the  irregular  and  picturesque  Gothic 
chateau.  The  architectural  development  of  the  fortress 
chateaux  during  the  Gothic  period  shows  a  growing  beauty 
and  richness  of  both  form  and  detail.  Luxurious  Gothic 
ornament  was  lavished  on  halls  and  interior  courts;  also, 
dormers,  pinnacles,  and  grotesques  were  numerous  on  the 
exterior,  and  produced  the  picturesque  broken  sky  line  that 
was  characteristic  of  all  Gothic  work. 

There  were  many  of  these  magnificent  structures  in 
France,  but  the  majority  of  the  most  important  ones  have 
been  either  destroyed  or  entirely  remodeled.  Chateau  Pier- 
refonds probably  presents  the  best  of  the  early  examples. 

The  date  of  the  earliest  construction  at  Pierrefonds  is  lost 
in  obscurity,  but  there  is  a  record  of  its  having  been 


(ft) 
FIG.  47 


101 


102  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

reconstructed,  and  that  it  was  an  unpretentious  structure 
when  it  came  into  the  hands  of  the  king,  about  1185  A.  D. 
Louis  of  Orleans  received  it  from  his  brother,  Charles  VI, 
and  began  to  remodel  it  in  1398.  Feudalism  at  that  time 
was  still  a  power  in  Europe,  and  Pierrefonds  as  it  stood 
when  finished,  in  1406,  was  a  thoroughly  medieval  fortress, 
built  at  the  time  when  Gothic  architecture  had  reached  its 
greatest  degree  of  perfection. 

98.  The    plan    included    the  characteristic  inner   court, 
upon  which  the  principal  living  apartments  opened.     The 
exterior   walls   were   plain,    and    presented    few   openings. 
They  were  of  enormous  thickness   and  were  protected  by 
eight   massive  circular   towers,   which  were  crowned   with 
conical  roofs. 

The  towers  and  walls  were  both  machicolated  and  battle- 
mented,  with  loopholes  between  the  embrasures  of  the 
battlements.  The  main  entrance  was  protected  by  a  moat 
and  a  walled  court  and  was  closed  by  a  portcullis.  All  the 
walls,  except  the  court,  rise  from  the  edge  of  a  steep  bluff. 

The  fagades  on  the  quadrangular  inner  court  are  less 
military  in  appearance.  The  windows  here  are  larger,  and 
traceries  and  foliations  are  prominent  in  their  design,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  48  (a).  Numerous  dormer-windows  are  sur- 
mounted by  crocketed  gables  and  finials,  and  a  traceried 
balustrade  stands  above  the  cornice.  These,  with  grotesque 
gargoyles,  heraldic  animals,  and  richly  carved  moldings,  com- 
bine to  produce  a  most  imposing  architectural  composition. 

In  front  of  the  main  staircase  is  a  bronze  equestrian  statue 
of  the  founder,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  opposite,  on  the 
right,  is  the  entrance  to  the  chapel,  with  an  elaborate  rose 
window  over  the  door.  The  inner  court,  from  which  a 
grand  stairway  usually  leads  to  the  several  floors,  became 
characteristic  of  French  chateaux,  and  later  governed  much 
of  the  domestic  architecture  throughout  France. 

99.  As  the  style  advanced,  the  soaring  character  of  the 
Gothic  structures  became  more  marked,   and  high-pitched 
roofs   with   elaborately    gabled    dormers    were    introduced. 


103 


(ft) 
FIG.  48 


104  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

The  elevations  became  more  symmetrical  and  the  windows 
were  arranged  with  more  regularity,  as  shown  on  the  inner 
court  of  the  Chateau  Fontaine  Henri,  Fig.  48  (£). 

100.  Hoensarzburg  Castle. — The  castle  of  Hoensarz- 
burg,  in  Germany,  Fig.  49  (a),  shows  the  elevated  position 
chosen  for  these  edifices  in  order  that  they  could  command 
an    extensive    view   of   the    surrounding   country  and  thus 
guard  against  a  surprise  attack. 

101.  Fortified    City   of  Carcassonne. — Among    the 
fortified  cities,  Carcassonne,  in  France,  Fig.  49  (£),  presents 
about  the  only  example  now  in  existence.     It  has  a  double 
line  of  fortifications  composed  of  fifty  towers  with  curtain 
walls   between,  and   a   dominating   citadel  within.      These 
fortifications  date  back  to  the  5th  century,  but  were  fre- 
quently altered  or  reconstructed  up  to    the    14th   century. 
After  that  they  were  allowed  to  fall  into  ruin  until  the  middle 
of_the  19th  century,  when  they  were  restored  as  nearly  as 
possible  to  their  original  form  by  the  French  government 
architect. 

This  class  of  Gothic  architecture  has  been  borrowed  in 
modern  design  for  armories  and  government  buildings, 
forming  parts  of  plans  of  defense. 

102.  Chateau  at  Blols. — The  most  celebrated  of  these 
chateaux  is  the  one  at  Blois,  France,  not  only  on  account  of 
its  historical  associations,  but  also  on  account  of  its  archi- 
tectural development.     Blois  never  was  of  much  importance 
until   1498,  when  Louis  XII,  who  was  born  there,  became 
king  of  France.     Blois  then  became  a  royal  chateau.     Louis 
XII,  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign,  rebuilt  a  portion  of  it,  and 
the  wing  bearing  his  name,  Fig.  50,  presents  one  of  the 
daintiest  compositions  in  Gothic  domestic  architecture. 

This  chateau  was  built  around  the  characteristic  inner  court, 
and  faced  on  a  large,  open,  outer  court,  as  it  was  erected 
on  the  lines  of  an  old  feudal  castle.  The  fagade  on  the 
outer  court,  Fig.  50,  consists  of  two  stories,  black  and 
red  brick  being  arranged  to  form  a  checker  pattern.  The 
windows  are  trimmed  with  light  stone,  which  is  laid  with 


(6) 

FIG.  49 


105 


218-1  LT  101    §  51 


FIG.  51 


108  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

characteristic  Gothic  indifference  as  to  uniformity  of  size  or 
thickness.  Some  of  these  stones  extend  into  the  brickwork 
the  length  of  three  bricks,  while  others  are  toothed  in  only 
one  brick  length.  The  effect  of  this  may  be  more  clearly 
seen  in  the  colored  detail  of  the  inner  court  elevation, 
Fig.  51.  The  contrast  of  color  between  the  red  brick  and 
buff  stone  is  here  evident,  and  the  detail  of  the  dormers 
may  be  more  closely  studied. 

The  entrance  is  composed  entirely  of  stone,  which  flanks 
it  on  both  sides  in  richly  diapered  columns,  as  in  Fig.  52  (a). 
These  columns  support  the  base  of  a  canopied  niche,  which 
contains  a  statue  of  Louis  XII  on  his  charger,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  52  (b).  The  background  of  the  niche  was  painted  blue 
and  on  it  the  fleur-de-lis  was  contrasted  in  gold.  Beneath  is 
the  crowned  porcupine,  the  adopted  emblem  of  Louis  XII, 
and  the  crowned  initials  of  the  king  and  of  Anne  of  Brittany, 
his  queen.  To  the  right  of  the  main  entrance  is  a  little  sally 
port  for  pedestrians,  and  over  this  a  balcony  projects  in 
front  of  a  recessed  window.  The  roof  is  high  and  is  cov- 
ered with  purple  slate,  while  studied  dormer-windows  center 
over  the  windows  below. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  only  attempt  at  regularity  in 
the  entire  elevation  is  in  the  arrangement  of  the  windows  to 
form  a  series  of  perpendicular  lines.  The  entrance  with  its 
sally  port  at  the  side  and  the  balcony  above  are  all  unsym- 
metrical,  and  the  extension  of  the  wall  to  the  north  is  of 
different  material,  having  been  built  a  long  time  previous, 
during  the  13th  century. 

103.  The  fac.ade  on  the  inner  court,  Fig.  53,  shows  a 
similar  arrangement  of  windows  and  dormers  in  the  second 
story  and  roof,  but  the  first  story  consists  of  an  arcade 
supported  on  piers  that  are  alternately  square  and  round 
in  plan,  as  shown  in  Fig.  54  (a).  These  piers,  like  the 
columns  that  flank  the  door  on  the  outer  court,  are  richly 
ornamented  with  carved  diaper  work  on  the  round  piers  and 
long,  carved  panels  on  the  square  ones,  the  latter  being  sug- 
gestive of  the  coming  Renaissance.  At  each  end  at  the 


110 


ILT  303—27 


112  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

arcade  stands  a  square  pavilion,  within  which  a  staircase  leads 
to  the  upper  stories.  The  arcade  continues  beyond  the 
south  pavilion  and  supports  a  low  second  story  adjacent  to 
the  chapel,  as  shown  in  Fig.  54  (l>).  The  chapel  is  a  dainty 
structure,  with  an  entrance  at  the  southwest  end,  over  which 
are  carved  in  the  soft  stone,  shields  bearing  the  fleur-de-lis 
of  the  French  kin**  and  the  ermine  of  Anne  of  Brittany. 

104.  Private  Chateaux. — Among  the  chateaux  that 
were  erected  by  private  citizens,  that  of  Jacques  Coeur,  at 
Bourges,  Fig.  55,  is  a  fine  example.  The  street  front  pre- 
sents a  central  pavilion,  in  which  a  large  entrance,  flanked 
by  a  smaller  one,  is  inserted,  as  at  Blois,  and  over  it  is  a 
canopied  niche  to  receive  a  statue.  This  form  of  entrance 
was  followed  in  many  of  the  constructions  of  this  period, 
many  of  them  being  even  more  elaborate  than  the  one  at 
Blois,  as  was  the  case  of  the  entrance  to  the  chateau  of  the 
dukes  of  Lorraine,  at  Nancy,  Fig.  56. 

On  the  inner-court  side,  the  house  of  Jacques  Coeur  pre- 
sented a  central  tower,  within  which  a  staircase  wound  to 
the  upper  apartments,  as  shown  in  Fig.  57  (a).  This  tower 
was  octagonal  in  plan,  and  at  the  angles  were  slightly  pro- 
jecting buttresses  that  carried  the  vaulting  under  the  stairs. 
It  will  be  well  to  note  these  buttresses  carefully,  and  also  the 
canopy  on  the  face  of  the  central  buttress,  as  these  are 
details  that  reappear  in  a  later  structure  of  importance. 
The  difference  in  the  level  of  the  windows  on  each  side  of 
this  buttress  is  caused  by  the  winding  stairs,  and  as  the 
windows  on  the  right  are  lower,  they  indicate  that  the  stairs 
ascend  from  that  side.  The  floor  levels  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  stairs  are  also  different,  there  being  three  tiers  of  win- 
dows on  one  side  and  only  one  on  the  other.  This  arrange- 
ment further  indicates  the  Gothic  indifference  to  symmetry. 

The  central  tower  containing  the  stairs  was  a  conspicuous 
feature  of  the  French  chateaux,  another  one  at  Bourges,  the 
Chateau  de  Meillant,  Fig.  57  (b],  possessing  a  most  elab- 
orate example,  on  each  side  of  which  the  stories  continue  at 
the  same  level. 


FIG.  56 


114 


115 


(ft) 

FIG.  58 


116  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

105.  Among  the  private  chateaux  is  Chateau  de  Nacque- 
ville,  shown  in  Fig.  58  (a).     The  residence  portion  of  this 
building  has  been  remodeled,  and  the  old  moat  in  front  of 
the  main  terrace  is  now  converted  into  a  lily  pond.     The  old 
entrance  to  the  inner  court,  with  its  drawbridge  and  port- 
cullis, Fig.  59  (a),  still  stands,  however,  and  serves  as  a  grim 
reminder  of  the  good  old  days  "when  knights  were  bold." 

106.  Cliaumont  Chateau. — The  chateau  of  Chaumont, 
Fig.  58  (6),  designed  by  Philipe  de  1'Orme,  occupies  a  bluff 
overlooking  the  river  Loire  and  is  most  picturesque  when 
viewed  from  the  valley  below.     The  situation  is  ideal  for  an 
edifice  of  this  character,  as  its  elevated  position  is  most  suit- 
able for  this  style  of  architecture. 

The  early  history  of  Chaumont  is  a  varied  one,  as  it 
frequently  changed  hands  not  only  among  French  masters, 
but  among  foreigners  also.  In  1169,  it  was  held  by  the 
English.  Nothing  of  importance  concerning  Chaumont  is 
recorded  until  the  15th  century,  when  it  was  destroyed  by 
Louis  XI  and  rebuilt  by  the  duke  of  Amboise.  Chaumont  is 
less  fortresslike  in  appearance  than  Pierrefonds,  but  it  does 
not  present  the  horizontal  lines  and  strong  classic  details  that 
mark  later  structures.  It  would  therefore  appear  to  have  been 
erected  earlier  than  the  chateaux  at  Chenouceau  and  Blois, 
although  de  1'Orme  was  state  architect  under  Henry  II. 

The  ground  plan  of  Chaumont  is  fundamentally  that  of  a 
medieval  fortress.  Almost  as  irregular  as  the  castle  of 
Coucy,  Fig.  46  (a),  it  spreads  out  fan-shaped,  with  the 
entrance  at  the  narrow  end  and  a  round  tower  at  each  angle, 
while  its  broad  side  overlooks  the  river.  The  sides  enclose 
an  irregular  court,  upon  which  the  windows  of  the  principal 
apartments  open,  as  in  Pierrefonds,  Fig.  48  (a). 

There  is  an  overhanging  battlemented  gallery  running 
entirely  around  the  outer  wall  of  Chaumont,  but  it  is  roofed 
over,  making  a  continuous  covered  passage.  The  main 
roofs  are  steep  and  the  tower  roofs  are  pointed  like  a  candle 
extinguisher,  thus  producing  an  irregular  sky  line  that 
strongly  assists  its  Gothic  feeling. 


118 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§51 


About  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  Chaumont  was  pur- 
chased by  Catherine  de  Medici,  who  owned  it  for  9  years. 
After  that  it  was  sold  and  resold  many  times,  until  in  the 
18th  century,  it  was  bought  by  a  Mr.  Leray,  who  turned  it 


TOWE& 


HATFIEL&  HOUSE 
W 

FIG.  60 

into  a  tile  factory.  The  fact  that  this  chateau  was  used  for 
such  a  purpose  saved  it  from  the  depredations  of  the  revo- 
lution, in  1793,  when  other  chateaux  were  either  burned  or 
razed  by  the  revolutionists.  Chaumont  had  so  long  been  a 
tile  factory,  that  it  was  not  considered  a  royal  possession. 


119 


FIG.  61 


120 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§51 


107.  Kenilwortli  Castle. — Although  over  a  thousand 
fortified  residences  were  erected  in  England  during  the  llth 
century,  comparatively  few  are  known  at  the  present  day. 
Some,  being  a  menace  to  royal  power,  have  been  destroyed, 
while  others  have  been  modernized  and  still  serve  as  resi- 
dences. Probably  the  most  renowned  of  these  feudal  castles 
is  Kenilworth,  made  immortal  by  Scott's  historical  novel  of 
that  name.  Its  plan,  Fig.  60  (a),  is  typical  of  the  English 


FIG.  62 

castle,  and  in  extravagance  of  apartments  and  magnificence 
of  furnishings,  it  was  one  of  the  finest  castles  in  England. 

108.  Warwick  Castle. — Among  the  early  castles  still 
standing  that  have  been  converted  into  modern  residences  is 
Warwick,  Fig.  61  (a).  This  illustration  shows  the  inner 
court  as  it  exists  today,  closed  at  one  end  by  the  original 
structure  and  flanked  on  the  right  by  the  modernized  build- 
ings that  are  occupied  by  the  Earl  of  Warwick.  The 
two  large  towers  are  known  as  Caesar's  tower  and  Guy's 


121 


FIG.  63 


122  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

tower.  The  former,  completed  in  1370,  is  an  irregular 
polygon,  147  feet  high,  while  the  latter  was  named  after 
Guy,  the  legendary  first  earl  of  Warwick.  Guy's  tower 
is  twelve-sided,  30  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base,  and  has 
walls  10  feet  in  thickness  and  128  feet  in  height.  The  cen- 
tral, or  clock,  tower,  Fig.  61  ($),  contains  the  entrance  to 
the  court,  as  shown.  This  entrance  opens  into  a  long 
passageway  cut  through  solid  rock,  and  this  passageway  is 
guarded  at  the  opposite  end  by  another  tower  containing  a 
portcullis,  as  shown  in  Fig.  59  (£).  The  castle  was  built  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  Avon,  over  which  the  resident  section 
of  the  structure  stands  today,  as  shown  in  Fig.  62. 

109.  Palaces  in  Germany. — Germany  did  not  develop 
its  palaces  at  such  an  early  period  as  France,  although  there 
were  castles  and  military  strongholds  scattered  all  over  the 
country.     These,  however,  were  occupied  only  in  time  of 
war,  when  their  owners   sought  them  for  safety.     During 
peaceful  times,  the  German  barons  dwelt  in  other  places, 
many  of  them  following  some  simple  vocation. 

1 10.  Venetian  Palaces. — In  Italy,  especially  in  Venice, 
the  residence  developed  a  national  style.     Gothic  architec- 
ture in  Venice  was  so  entirely  different  from  the  Gothic  of 
Northern  Europe,  that  in  speaking  of  the  style,  it  is  almost 
invariably  qualified  by  the  term  Venetian  Gothic. 

Venetian  Gothic  architecture  depends  largely  for  effect 
upon  its  window  treatment.  Arcaded  balconies  between 
flanking  masses  and  rectangular  panels  treated  with  traceried 
arches  characterize  the  style.  This  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  64 
and  also  at  (b),  (c),  (d),  and  (e)\  Fig.  41. 

The  Ducal  Palace,  Fig.  63,  faces  on  the  Grand  Canal  and 
presents  a  front  of  two  stories  in  arcades  and  a  tall  roof 
treatment  over  them.  The  capitals  and  arches  are  richly 
carved,  and  characteristic  tracery  pierces  the  spandrels. 
The  left  side  of  the  building  faces  St.  Mark's  Square, 
opposite  St.  Mark's  Church. 

111.  The    palaces    Cavalli    and    Foscari,    Fig.    64    (a) 
and    (t>),    respectively,    present    the    same    general   details 


123 


FIG.  64 


124  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

as    the    Ducal    Palace,    except    that    they    are    differently 
arranged. 

The  single  narrow  structure  shown  in  Fig.  65  is  the  little 
palace  of  Contarini  Fasan,  generally  known  as  the  house  of 
Desdemona.  

TOWN    HALLS 

112.  The  prosperous  condition  of  the  individual  cities 
in  the  Netherlands  and  in  Germany  greatly  influenced  their 
political  architecture.     Owing  to  the  form  of  government 
that   had   developed    in   this    part    of   the    country,   it  was 
necessary  for  the  cities  to  protect  themselves  rather  than  to 
depend  on  the  king  or  any  specific  power,  and  through  these 
arrangements  for  local  protection  arose  many  quaint  customs 
and  usages. 

A  belfry  attached  to  the  town  hall  was  considered  a  great 
honor  to  the  locality,  and  it  was  a  privilege  that  could  be 
obtained  only  by  charter.  The  belfry  at  Bruges,  Belgium, 
Fig.  66,  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  of  these  towers  built 
at  this  period.  It  is  352  feet  high,  of  massive  construction, 
and  has  a  winding  stairway  leading  to  its  top,  where  a  set  of 
chimes  have  played  a  fraction  of  a  tune  every  quarter  hour, 
without  interruption,  for  the  past  300  years. 

113.  The  town  halls  and  gildhalls  were  especially  fine, 
the  one  at  Bruges,  Fig.  67,  being  elaborately  decorated  with 
tracery  windows  and  canopied  niches.     Within  the  niches 
were  placed  statues  of  the  principal  characters  in  the  history 
of  the  country. 

114.  The  city  hall  at  Brussels,  Fig.  68,  is  similar  in  char- 
acter to  the  one  at  Bruges,  but  it  is  more  elaborate  in  detail, 
and  its  tall  central  tower  terminates  in  a  spire.     This  struc- 
ture faces  on  a  large  square,  on  the  opposite  side  of  which  is 
the  courthouse.     At  the  end  to  the  right  is  a  row  of  gildhalls 
that  are  occupied  by  the  several  gilds  of  craftsmen  that  have 
been  organized  in  the  low  countries  for  many  centuries. 

115.  The    town   hall    at    Louvain,    Belgium,    Fig.    69, 
reflects  the  pride  and  prosperity  of  that  community.     The 


inn     \m  urn 

prtiin         iimijtti  iiiiinii! 

mil     iii  inn 

•«.»»»  !».«,««!  HfJSJi 

'  KJ 


I  I.  T  101     §  51 


Pin.  C5 


Fir..  (iG 


Fid.  07 


126 


FIG.  C8 


ILT  303—2 


130  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

same  general  decorative  schemes  that  were  employed  in 
Bruges  and  Brussels  are  used  here,  and  under  canopied 
niches  local  heroes  are  represented  in  marble  effigies. 

116.  Of  a  more  simple  character  is  the  city  hall  at  Bruns- 
wick,  Germany,  Fig.  70.     The  design  of  this  building  is 
decidedly  ecclesiastical,  yet  it  presents  the  same  indifference 
to  regularity  and  balance  that  characterizes  all  Gothic  con- 
structions.    In  this  example,  the  high-pitched  roof  over  the 
main  structure  is  closed  in  between  two  stone-stepped  gables, 
and  beyond  it  and  independent  of  it  is  a  two-story  arcade, 
the  upper  part  of  which  is  treated  as  a  series  of  traceried 
dormer-windows. 

117.  At  Miinster,   Germany,    the    city   hall,    shown   in 
Fig.  71,  consists  of  only  one  fagade,  the  lower  portion  of 
which  is  treated  as  an  arcade,    while   the   upper   consists 
simply  of  a  stone  screen  against  the  gable.     This  building 
is  very  pretentious,  although  not  especially  pleasing,  as  it 
has  the  appearance  of  flimsiness  and  gives  the  impression 
that  it  would  be  likely  to  blow  over  in  a  high  wind;   an 
impression  that  is  further  strengthened  by  the  numerous 
braces  that  can  be  seen  behind  the  pinnacles,  apparently 
steadying  them  in  their  positions. 

Gothic  architecture,  however,  never  attempted  in  its  best 
periods  to  hide  its  construction;  it  was  a  system  based  on 
construction,  and  the  gable  was  usually  treated  as  a  gable 
and  no  attempt  was  made  to  hide  it.  This  town  hall  at 
Miinster,  therefore,  is  a  digression  that  indicates  a  deca- 
dence in  the  style. 

118.  The  city  hall  at  Rochelle,  France,  Fig.  72,  par- 
takes more  of  the  feudal  character  that  is  seen  in  the  early 
chateaux  of  France.     The  walls  surrounding  it  enclose  a 
court  and  are  crested  with  battlements  supported  on  corbels. 
Corbeled  towers  guard  the  angles,  and  the  characteristic  doors 
for   pedestrians    and   mounted  visitors  give  access  to  the 
interior. 

119.  In  the  secular  architecture  of  the  Netherlands,  the 
roofs  have  steep  pitches  and  are  frequently  terminated  by 


FIG.  71 


134  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

crow-stepped  or  traceried  gables  of  picturesque  outline. 
Turrets  and  chimney  stacks  of  an  ornamental  character, 
with  dormers  and  pinnacles,  combine  to  give  variety  to  the 
outline. 

The  walls  are  more  regular  in  design  than  in  other 
countries,  and  as  irregularity  and  independence  of  relation 
of  one  part  to  another  is  generally  characteristic  of  the 
Gothic  style,  the  symmetry  and  proportion  of  the  Nether- 
land  edifices  are  contrary  to  the  characteristics  of  Gothic 
architecture  in  other  countries.  (See  Figs.  66,  67,  and  68.) 

Elaborate  tracery  and  paneling  characterize  the  window 
openings,  rows  of  windows  being  arranged  symmetrically 
on  each  side  of  the  center  of  the  building  or  between 
prominent  end  features.  (See  Figs.  67,  68,  69,  70,  and  71.) 


CITY    GATES 

120.  Many  city  gates  still  remain  in  the  towns  that  were 
once  walled   or  partly  walled   for  protection.     Among  the 
most   picturesque    gates    are    those    of   York,    England,   as 
shown  in  Fig.  73.     These  gates  are  battlemented  and  are 
protected  by  small  turrets  in  which  are  loopholes  for  the 
discharge  of  small  projectiles.     There  is  something  deeply 
impressive  about  these  formidable  relics  of  feudal  days  as 
they  still  stand  at  the  entrances  of    the  older  cities.     At 
York,   as   at   other   places,   the   city  has   grown  beyond  its 
original  limits,   and   some   of    the   old  city   gates   are   now 
included  within  the  confines  of  the  city  proper,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  74. 

121.  In  Germany,  these   gates  had  a  more  ponderous 
character,  but  they  presented  a  very  formal  appearance;  as. 
that  at  Cologne.     In  France,  the  chateau  style  of  architec- 
ture was  followed,  and  the  gate  at  Nancy,  shown  in  Fig.  75, 
is  very  picturesque.     This  gate  has  a  corbeled  attic  between 
its   two   towers,   in   the   floor    of  which   are   machicolations 
through  which  boiling  oil  or  molten  lead  could  be  poured 
on  the  heads  of  any  unwelcome  visitors  that  tried  to  force 
an  entrance.     The  loophole  over  the  center  of  the  doorway 


Fu..  75 


138  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

is  in  the  form  of  a  double  cross,  thus  combining  the  decora- 
tive motif  with  the  necessities  of  conditions. 

122.  At  Bordeaux,  France,  the  city  gate  and  the  city 
clock  tower,  as  shown  in  Fig.  76,  are  combined  in  a  pic- 
turesque construction  that  rises  high  above  the  surrounding 
buildings.  Here,  the  single  tower  is  carried  above  the  arch, 
and  then  it  is  split  into  two  towers,  between  which  a  bell  is 
hung.  It  then  unites  over  a  low,  pointed  arch  that  springs 
tangent  from  the  towers  themselves. 


MINOR    DWELLINGS 

123.  Some  small  dwellings  were  framed  with  a  timber 
construction,  and  the  open  spaces  between  the  structural 
framework  were  filled  in  with  brick  or  sometimes  plastered 
over  (see  Fig.  77).  This  was  termed  open-timber  construc- 
tion, and  was  essentially  Gothic  in  principle,  as  heavy 
timbers  supported  roofs  and  floors,  while  the  brickwork 
was  simply  an  enclosing  screen  between  the  supports. 

In  Germany,  the  roofs  of  these  houses  were  very  high,  and 
frequently  contained  more  stories  than  the  house  proper, 
which  it  covered.  The  space  under  the  roof,  as  in  Fig.  78  (a) , 
was  used  as  a  drying  room  for  the  household  wash. 

In  some  cities,  the  ridge  was  placed  parallel  with  the 
street,  and  numerous  dormers  were  introduced  for  ventila- 
tion; while  in  other  places,  the  ridge  was  at  right  angles  to 
the  street,  and  the  windows  were  grouped  under  the  gable. 
Gables  were  projected  on  brackets,  and  the-  woodwork  was 
frequently  carved  elaborately.  [See  Fig.  77  (£).] 


139 


FIG.  77 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


141 


124.  Small  brick  residences  were  also  numerous,  par- 
ticularly in  Germany  and  the  Netherlands.  On  these  the  front 
walls  were  carried  up  in  a  gable,  the  pitches  of  which,  instead 


FIG.  79 


of  being  simple,  straight  lines,  were  stepped,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  79.  These  stepped  gables,  especially  in  the  Netherlands, 
are  prominent  throughout  the  Gothic  and  succeeding  periods. 


REVIEW    EXERCISES 

1.  Describe  the  architectural  characteristics  of  (a)  the  Early  French 
chateaux,  (I))  the  English  castles. 

2.  Make   a   sketch   in   water  color  of   the  elevation  of  a  Venetian 
palace.     The  pencil  drawing  may  be  made  from  one  of  the  illustra- 
tions  in   the    text   and  then  carefully  colored    from    the    example    of 
Contarini   Fasan. 

3.  What  important  structures  other  than  churches  and  cathedrals 
characterize  the  architecture  of  the  middle  ages? 

4.  Make  a  finished  sketch  with  pencil  or  pen-and-ink  of  a  fortified 
city    gate    of    the    medieval   period   and   state  what   national   style   it 
represents. 

5.  What   were   the   characteristics  of  the  minor  residences  of  the 
middle  ages? 


142  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


MOSLEM    ARCHITECTURE 

(637  A.  D.  TO  1492  A.  D.) 


INTRODUCTION 

125.  Moslem,  or  Saracenic,  architecture  is  the  term 
applied  to  the  constructions  of  the  nations  that  were  followers 
of  the  teachings  of  Mohammed. 

Gothic  architecture  developed  from  the  Romanesque 
through  a  natural  progress  of  construction  problems.  In  a 
similar  manner,  Romanesque  architecture  developed  from 
the  Roman  vaulted  style,  and  Roman  architecture  in  the 
Western  Empire  adopted  the  Greek  orders  and  developed 
them  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  Roman  constructions. 
Byzantine  architecture  developed  in  the  Eastern  Empire 
from  the  Roman  domed  style,  but  as  Byzantium  was  origi- 
nally a  Greek  colony,  the  development  of  the  new  style 
shows  a  strong  influence  of  Greek  art.  Rome  adopted  her 
art  from  Greece  and  applied  it  to  her  massive  construction. 
Byzantium  borrowed  construction  from  Rome  and  combined 
it  with  art  borrowed  from  Greece. 

Moslem  architecture  first  developed  from  the  Byzantine, 
but  not  in  the  sense  that  Byzantine  or  Gothic  developed  from 
the  Roman.  Moslem  architecture  at  first  borrowed  neither 
construction  nor  decoration  from  the  Christian  styles  to  com- 
bine with  details  of  its  own,  but  copied  the  style  entirely. 

126.  Moslem  architecture  and  ornament  will   be  con- 
sidered under  its  principal  nationalities:     Indian,  Arabian, 
Persian,  Turkish,  and  Moorish.     Each  nation  influenced  the 
style  by  its  particular  characteristics,  and  for  this  reason 
the  Moorish  architecture  in  Southern  Spain  is  found  to  be 
only  slightly  related  to  the  Moslem  work  in  Turkey.     The 
ornament  and  decorative   schemes,  however,   are  not  sur- 
passed in  ingenuity  in  any  Christian  style. 


§f>l  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  143 


INFLUENCES 

127.  Geographical. — Important  as  was  the  influence 
of  Byzantine  art  in  Europe  from  the  6th  to  the  llth  century, 
there  was  no  people  that  it  affected  more  than  the  great  and 
spreading  Arab  race  that  propagated  the  creed  of  Moham- 
med, and,  after  conquering  the  finest  countries  in  Asia  and 
Africa,  finally  obtained  a  footing  even  in  Europe.  In  the 
earlier  buildings  executed  by  them  in  Egypt,  Palestine,  and 
Spain,  the  influence  of  the  Byzantine  style  is  very  strongly 
marked,  and  the  tradition  of  the  Byzantine  school  affected  all 
the  adjacent  countries  to  a  greater  or  less  degree. 

Although  the  Arabs  must  have  possessed  an  original  art, 
only  a  few  traces  of  it  remain,  and  these  are  in  legends 
wherein  grand  buildings  are  spoken  of  that  date  back  to 
remote  antiquity. 

It  is  known  that  the  wandering  and  stationary  tribes  dis- 
tinguished each  other  by  the  names  "Felt  people"  and 
"Clay  people,"  and  this  would  convey  the  impression  that 
the  latter  title  implied  a  knowledge  of  ceramics;  but  the 
character  of  the  decoration  of  the  pottery  of  these  early 
tribes  is  at  present  unknown,  as  is  also  that  of  their  arms, 
fabrics,  and  fixed  dwellings. 

On  their  contact  with  the  Greeks,  East  Indians,  and 
Persians,  the  Arabian  people  produced  a  style  of  ornament 
that  formed  an  important  part  in  the  compromise  now  called 
by  the  name  Byzantine.  Subsequently,  when  Byzantine  art 
had  reached  its  zenith,  Arabian  art,  under  the  influence  of 
Mohammedanism,  took  the  form  under  which  it  is  now  known, 
and  may  have  shown  in  some  applications  a  certain  Byzantine 
influence  exercised  on  the  Arab  practice.  It  is  unreason- 
able, however,  to  consider  Byzantine  art,  as  is  sometimes 
done,  as  being  originally  a  formation  of  the  Arab  style,  as 
the  latter  has  too  much  character  and  unity  not  to  be  in 
itself  an  original  conception.  There  appears  to  have  been  a 
mutual  influence  exercised  between  the  Byzantine  and 
Arabian  during  the  earliest  periods,  as  inevitably  happens  in 
a  contest  for  supremacy  between  two  neighboring  styles. 

I  L  T  303—29 


144  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

128.  Geological. — As  the  different  countries  presented 
different    geological    formations,    the    style    was  influenced 
locally  by  the  material  at  hand.     In  Turkey,  domes  were  of 
brick  and  plastered  inside  and  outside,  and  in  Northern  and 
Central  India,  they  were  of  stone.     Marble  and  sandstone 
were  also  available  in  the  latter  country,  and  a  monumental 
style  of  design  was  developed.     In  Spain,  the  walls  were  of 
brick  and  were  plastered  on  the  inside,  as  were  also  the 
wooden  partitions  separating  the  rooms. 

129.  Climatic. — The  climate  varied  somewhat  with  the 
different  countries,  but  the  development  of  the  style  was 
confined  to  eastern  and  southern  countries,  so  that,  generally 
speaking,  the  climate  was  excessively  hot.     This  gave  rise 
to  a  tendency  toward  small  window  and  door  openings. 

130.  Religious. — Moslem  architecture  was  essentially 
a  religious  style.     Gothic  and  Byzantine  architecture  were 
developed  by  Christian  nations,  but  the  nations  were  estab- 
lished before  the  religion  was  adopted,  and  the  architecture 
was  developed  on  structural  principles.     Moreover,  the  wars 
of  the  Roman  Empire  that  carried  the  Christian  religion  into 
remote  parts,  were  wars  for  conquest  and  not  for  the  exten- 
sion   of    Christianity.     With   the    Moslems,    however,    the 
reverse  was  the  case.     It  was  the  religion  of  Mohammed 
that  united  them  into  a  nation,  and  it  was  the  forcing  of  this 
religion  on  other  nations  that  extended  their  empire  and 
spread  their  arts  from  India  to  Spain. 

The  Moslem  belief  is  a  simple  one  and  is  summed  up  in 
the  quotation  from  the  Koran,  "God's  will  be  done."  The 
Moslem  is  therefore  a  fatalist,  and  believing  all  things  to  be 
preordained,  he  made  no  great  effort  toward  any  great 
future  achievement.  He  believed  the  future  had  been 
arranged  by  God  before  he  himself  came  into  the  world. 
The  present  was  everything  to  him,  as  it  was  all  he  would 
be  sure  of,  and  this  often  led  to  the  erection  of  buildings 
that  were  far  from  permanent  themselves.  They  were, 
however,  lavishly  decorated  in  unsubstantial  materials,  such 
as  wood,  lattice,  and  plaster. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AM)  ORNAMENT  H5 

131.  Political  and  Historical. — As  has  already  been 
stated,  the  Saracens  in  the  8th  century  spread  themselves 
over  Northern  Africa  and  Southern  Spain,  and  while  the 
rest  of  the  world  during  the  so-called  dark  ages  was  plunged 
into  the  darkest  ignorance,  Bagdad  in  Persia,  Cairo  in 
Egypt,  and  Cordova  and  Toledo  in  Spain  were  centers  of 
brilliant,  artistic,  and  intelligent  activity  under  the  Moslem 
government.  The  Saracen  Empire  was  ruled  by  a  caliph, 
Mohammed  being  the  first.  After  his  death,  four  other 
caliphs  ruled  in  succession.  Then  disputes  arose  and  the 
empire  became  divided  between  two  caliphs,  one  ruling  at 
Bagdad,  in  Persia,  and  the  other  at  Cordova,  in  Spain  (see 
History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  2,  Arts.  36  to 
38).  The  caliphate  of  Cordova  became  divided  into  the 
four  kingdoms  of  Seville,  Granada,  Toledo,  and  Valentia. 
These  kingdoms  were  frequently  at  war  with  the  Christians 
in  Spain,  but  this  did  not  prevent  the  Moorish  builders  from 
employing  Christian  workmen  on  their  buildings,  and  in  this 
manner  there  was  some  Gothic  influence  expressed  in  their 
constructions. 

Each  caliph  was  a  spiritual  as  well  as  a  temporal  ruler. 
He,  as  successor  to  Mohammed,  was  the  highest  priest  of 
the  religion  and  the  chief  ruler  over  all  the  countries  that 
worshiped  according  to  the  Moslem  rites.  These  rites  were 
set  forth  in  a  book  called  the  Koran,  written  by  Mohammed 
by  dictation  from  an  angel  alleged  to  have  appeared  to  him 
in  a  vision. 

The  religious  and  civil  government  thus  united  had  the 
effect  of  injecting  a  religious  element  into  every  architec- 
tural structure.  The  change  and  multiplication  of  capitals, 
due  to  the  change  of  dynasties,  also  gave  impetus  to  much  sec- 
ular,building.  The  position  of  women  in  the  Moslem  social 
system  exercised  great  influence  in  the  planning  and  design- 
ing, as  provision  had  to  be  made  for  the  isolation  of  the 
harem,  or  apartment  where  the  women  dwelt,  and  was  also 
responsible  for  the  elaborate  lattice  of  the  windows  that 
would  not  permit  one  to  see  into  the  apartments  from  the 
street  or  from  them  into  the  street. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  147 

CHARACTERISTICS 

132.  The  temples,  or  places  of  religious  service,  of  the 
Moslems  are  called  mosques,  and  these  with  the  palaces  and 
tombs  constitute  the  most  important  architectural  struc- 
tures— structures  that,  as  heretofore  stated,  are  of  interest 
almost  entirely  on  account  of  their  lavish  and  brilliant 
decorations.  The  mosques  consisted  of  low,  flat-roofed 
buildings,  within  which  numerous  rows  of  columns  sup- 
ported a  series  of  arcades  that  gave  the  interior  a  mysteri- 
ous and  complex  appearance,  as  shown  in  Fig.  80  (b). 
These  were  roofed  over  so  as  to  give  a  dome  effect  on  the 
exterior.  The  domes  were  usually  of  a  bulb  shape,  rather 
than  hemispherical,  and  at  the  angles  of  the  building  were 
erected  tall,  slender  minarets,  or  signal  towers,  from  the 
top  of  which  the  muezzins,  or  priests,  summoned  the 
faithful  to  worship. 

The  Koran  forbade  the  Moslems  to  make  any  pictorial 
representations  of  any  living  thing  in  their  architecture  or 
decoration,  as  such  representation  was  considered  as  idolatry; 
consequently,  their  decorative  schemes  consisted  mostly  of 
geometrical  constructions  representing  intricate  and  ingen- 
ious fretwork  and  interlacing  of  straight  and  curved  lines. 
There  can  be  but  little  doubt,  however,  that  this  command- 
ment was  interpreted  liberally  in  some  districts  where  the 
decorative  schemes  appear  to  be  based  upon  vegetable 
forms. 

The  introduction  of  quotations  from  the  Koran  in  Arabian 
characters  interwoven  with  elaborate  geometrical  ornament, 
is  an  innovation  original  with  the  Moslems,  and  friezes  and 
borders  of  great  richness  and  variety  were  thereby  obtained. 
(See  Fig.  89.) 

The  pointed  arch,  similar  to  the  Gothic  form  of  Northern 
Europe,  was  used  extensively  in  Egypt  and  the  East,  while 
in  Spain  and  other  western  countries  under  Moorish  domi- 
nation, the  horseshoe  arch  (Fig.  87)  seems  to  have  been 
more  popular. 


148  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


EXAMPLES 

133.  At  Cordova,  Seville,  Toledo,  Granada,  and  several 
other  cities  in  Andalusia  (see  Fig.  42)  may  be  found  mag- 
nificent monuments  to  the  art  and  skill  of  the   Moslems. 
These  structures  were  all  erected  prior  to  their  expulsion 
in  1492  A.  D. 

134.  The  Alhambra. — The  Alhambra  was  the  palace 
and  fortress  of  the  Moorish  kings  at  Granada.     The  exterior 
of  this  structure,  Fig.  80  (a),  is  impressive,  but  it  is  undeco- 
rated,  as  were  other  feudal  castles.    The  interior,  however,  was 
gorgeous  beyond  description.     The  walls  were  tiled  below 
and  elaborately  diapered  in  relief  above  and  brilliantly,  but 
harmoniously,  colored  in  blue,  red,  and  gold.     The  wainscot 
of  the  tiles  were  in  geometrical  patterns,  introducing  greens 
and   browns    as  well   as   reds    and   blues.      There  was  no 
structure  problem  solved  here,  however,  as  the  reliefs  are 
all  modeled  in  plaster,  supported  on  a  light  framework  of 
latticed  wood. 

135.  The    Giralda. — The    Giralda,    or    tower    of    the 
cathedral  at  Seville,  shown  in  Fig.  81,  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  towers  in  the  world.     It  was  rebuilt  after  burning 
in  1395,  and  though  not  so  lofty  as  the  original,  it  is  still  a 
most  imposing  architectural  detail. 

It  is  built  in  two  different  styles,  the  lower  portion  being 
part  of  the  original  Moorish  prayer  tower,  while  the  top  con- 
sists of  a  crown  of  Renaissance  detail.  It  is  hardly  conceiv- 
able that  two  such  widely  differing  styles  of  architecture 
could  be  combined  in  one  design  and  result  in  as  harmonious 
a  composition;  yet  the  Giralda  of  Seville  is  as  satisfactory  a 
composition  as  can  be  found  in  any  country.  For  two-thirds 
of  its  height  (about  200  feet)  the  tower  consists  of  a  plain 
massive  structure  faced  with  reddish  tiles.  Eighty  feet  above 
the  ground  the  severity  of  the  tower  is  relieved  by  a  char- 
acteristic surface  decoration  in  panels  diapered  in  arabesque 
ornament.  The  original  design  was  battlemented  at  the 
top,  as  were  all  the  feudal-castle  towers,  but  in  1568  the 


rs-i  LT  101    s  51 


Re,.  81 


150 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


51 


Renaissance  superstructure  was  added,  of  which  mention 
will  be  made  under  the  subject  of  Renaissance  Architecture 
(Art.  154). 

136.  Alcazar  at  Seville. — The  alcazar,  or  palace,  at 
Seville,  an  interior  view  of   which    is    shown   in    Fig.   82, 
was  erected  about  1350.     This  structure  is  now  in  a  partly 
dilapidated  condition,  but  enough  remains  to  enable  one  to 
judge  the  magnificence  of  the  original  design. 

137.  Mosque  at  Cordova. — The  mosque  at  Cordova, 
the  plan  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  83,  was  erected  in  786. 
It    consists    of    a    parallelogram   422    ft.  X  573   ft.,   and   its 
area   is   greater  than   that  of  any  of  the  cathedrals.     This 


* 

* 


OF  TH£  MO5QUE  ATCOfcDOVA 
PIG.  83] 

structure  contains  seventeen  rows  of  columns,  thirty-two  in 
each  row,  supporting  two  sets  of  horseshoe  arches  elabo- 
rately cusped  and  richly  decorated,  as  shown  in  Fig.  80  (b). 
The  perspective  thus  formed  by  this  forest  of  columns  is 
most  impressive  and  inspiring. 


51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  151 


ANAL.YTICAJ,   STUDY 


PLANS 

138.  The  plans  of  the  mosques  (see  Fig.  83)  generally 
consisted  of  a  rectangle  with  an  open,  unroofed  space  in  the 
center,  containing  a  fountain  for  ablution  as  enjoined  by  the 
Koran.  Around  this  open  space  was  a  series  of  columns 
supporting  arcades,  and  on  the  side  toward  the  sacred  city 
of  Mecca  (east)  extra  rows  of  columns  were  planned  so  as  to 
give  greater  depth  of  covered  space.  At  the  corners,  min- 
arets arose,  and  these  were  usually  octagonal,  though  in 
some  instances  they  were  square.  Some  of  the  eastern 
mosques  are  cruciform  in  plan,  the  central  portion  being  left 
open  and  the  four  arms  vaulted  over. 

The  dwellings  were  also  planned  with  an  interior  court, 
and  the  principal  rooms  opened  from  this  place  on  three 
sides,  as  shown  in  Fig.  84. 


WALLS 

139.  The  Moslem  walls  were  constructed  of  brick, 
stone,  or  other  material,  according  to  what  each  community 
provided.  They  were  elaborately  ornamented  with  fine  sur- 
face decoration  in  tiles,  rare  stones,  or  relief  plaster.  In 
the  interior  of  the  Alhambra,  the  walls  are  wainscoted  to  a 
height  of  4  feet  with  glazed  tiles,  above  which  a  rich 
arabesque  decoration  is  carried  out  in  plaster,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  85.  In  Cairo,  some  of  the  walls  are  built  of  brick  in 
the  first  story,  and  of  wood  and  plaster  above. 


ROOFS 

140.  The  ceilings  were  usually  flat,  except  where  a 
dome  was  used,  and  were  richly  decorated  in  colors  and  gild- 
ing. The  dome  was  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  mosques 
and  tombs  in  the  eastern  section,  but  is  not  often  seen  in 
Spain.  Except  where  the  Byzantine  model  was  closely 


KlG.  >>0 


154 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  155 

followed,  the  dome  is  seldom  hemispherical,  but  of  a  bul- 
bous shape,  and  windows  were  frequently  placed  in  the 
lower  parts.  The  domes  were  built  over  square  compart- 
ments, and  the  pendentives  of  the  Byzantine  style  were 
replaced  by  a  series  of  projecting  corbels,  one  over  another. 


COLUMNS 

141.  Many  of  the  early  Moslem  buildings  used  old 
columns  taken  from  Roman  or  Byzantine  ruins.  A  char- 
acteristic style  soon  developed,  however,  and  in  the  Alham- 
bra  are  found  examples  of  original  compositions  that  are  at 
once  graceful  and  pleasing.  The  capitals  are  usually  square, 
with  a  long  necking,  and  the  supporting  column  is  tall  and 
slender.  (See  Figs.  86,  87,  and  88.) 


OPENINGS 

142.  The  Moslem  windows  were  small,  owing  to  the 
excessive  heat.  They  were  nearly  always  fitted  with  elab- 
orate lattices  in  geometrical  patterns  and  were  occasionally 
glazed  with  colored  glass.  The  window  heads  and  other 
openings  usually  conformed  to  one  of  four  styles:  (1)  The 
pointed  arch,  which  was  used  with  square  jambs  and 
unmolded  soffit;  (2)  the  ogee  arch,  which  was  used  mostly 
in  Persia  and  India;  (3)  the  horseshoe  arch,  Fig.  87  (b), 
which  is  characteristic  of  both  Spain  and  North  Africa;  and 
(4)  the  foliated  arch,  Fig.  88,  which  is  typical  of  the  Moors 
in  Spain. 

These  arch  forms  when  used  for  doorways  and  arcades, 
were  frequently  tied  across  at  the  springing  point  with  a 
wooden  beam  or  an  iron  rod. 


MOLDINGS 

143.  Moldings  were  of  little  importance,  their  place 
being  taken  by  elaborate  bands  of  surface  decoration. 
Occasionally,  however,  moldings  of  the  Byzantine  model 
were  used  around  doorways  and  window  openings. 


Fir..  89 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  159 


ORNAMENT 

144.  The  crowning  glory  of  Moslem  architecture  was 
the  ornament.     This  was  practically  limited  to  inanimate  and 
non-vegetable  types,   owing  to  restrictions   of  the   Koran, 
and  presented  mostly  geometrical  patterns  of  great  intricacy 
and   diaper    treatments    in    endless    variety.     The    Moslem 
designer    being    thus    deprived    of    the    opportunity    that 
enabled  the  Gothic  architect  to  treat  his  facade  with  elabo- 
rate sculpture,  developed  in  its  stead  an  intricate  scheme  of 
color  that  produces  most  beautiful  results. 

145.  Classification    of    the    Moslem    Ornament. — 

The  ornament  may  be  divided  into  four  general  classes, 
as  follows: 

1.  The  mnemonic,   which  consists  of  quotations  from 
the   Koran  interwoven  with   geometrical   constructions,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  89. 

2.  The  superposed,  which  consists  of  a  diaper  pattern 
in  relief  laid  over  a  ground  pattern  of  a  more  or  less  geo- 

*  metrical  character,  as  in  Fig.  90  (a)  and  (b). 

3.  The  stalactite,  which  was  used  primarily  in  place  of 
pendentives,  as  in  Fig.  86. 

4.  The    geometrical,    which    consists    of    interwoven 
bands  and  ribbons,   as  in   Fig.  91. 

146.  Moorish  Ornament. — In  Moorish  art,  the  deco- 
ration   arises    naturally    from    the    construction,    and    the 
constructive  idea  is  carried  out  in  every  detail  of  the  orna- 
mentation   of    the    surface.     In    decorative    schemes,    the 
general  forms  were  first  cared  for;  these  were  subdivided 
by  general  lines,  the  interstices  of  which  were  then  filled 
with  ornament  that  was  again  subdivided  and  enriched  for 
closer  inspection.     The  Moors  carried  out  this  principle  with 
the  greatest  refinement,  and  the  harmony  and  beauty  of  all 
their  ornamentation  derived  their  chief  success  from  this 
observance;   their  main  divisions  contrasted  and  balanced 
perfectly.     The    detail   never    interferes    with    the    general 
form,  and,  when  seen  at  a  distance,  the  main  lines  strike 

I  L  T  303—30 


FIG.  90 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  161 

the  eye  and  the  fine  detail  disappears;  nearer  approached, 
more  detail  comes  into  the  composition,  and,  on  close  inspec- 
tion, all  detail  of  the  surface  appears  as  a  grand  powdering 
of  ornament. 

Moorish  ornament  lacks  the  charm  of  symbolism  that  is  so 
characteristic  of  Egyptian  ornament;  but  its  place  is  filled 
by  the  Arabic  inscriptions,  which  address  themselves  directly 
to. the  eye  by  their  personal  beauty.  They  not  only  excite 
the  intellect  by  the  difficulties  of  deciphering  their  complex 
and  curious  involutions,  but  also  delight  the  imagination 
when  read  by  the  beauty  of  the  sentiments  they  express  and 
the  music  of  their  composition.  Long  fantastic  letters, 
interwoven  with  graceful  but  intricate  geometrical  patterns, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  89,  lead  the  eye  to  decipher  the  words, 
find  sentiments  that  are  ever  present  and  associated  with  all 
their  daily  doings,  and  simple  but  truthful  phrases  elabor- 
ately twisted  or  intricately  woven,  of  which  the  one  most 
frequently  repeated  is  the  quotation  from  the  Koran:  "There 
is  no  conqueror  but  God." 

147.  Coloring  In  Moorish  Ornament. — The  coloring 
of  the  Moorish  ornament  was  treated  as  skilfully  as  was  the 
form.     The  Moors  followed  certain  fixed  principles  founded 
on  observations  of  natural  laws.     The  colors  employed  on 
their  stucco  work  were  in  all  cases  a  combination  of  the 
three  primaries — blue,  red,  and  yellow,  the  last  being  rep- 
resented by  gold — and  the  secondary  colors — purple,  green, 
and  orange — occurred   only  in  the  mosaic   dados.     These, 
being  nearer  the  eye,  formed  a  point  of  repose  from  the 
more  brilliant  coloring  above. 

148.  It  may  be  remarked  here  that  among  the  Egyp- 
tians, Greeks,  Arabs,  and  Moors,  the  primary  colors  were 
used  exclusively  in  the  earliest  period  of  the  arts,  and,  during 
the  decadence,  the  secondary  colors  were  used.     Thus,  in 
Egypt,  the  temples  of  the  Pharaonic  period  were  painted 
entirely  in   primary  colors,   while  those   of   the   Ptolemaic 
period  used  the  secondaries.     The  early  Greek  temples  were 
decorated  in  the  primary  colors,  while  at    Pompeii  every 


162  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


(a) 


(c) 


FIG.  91 


(c) 

218-1  I.  T  101     §  51 


Fie.  92 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  163 

variety  of  shade  possible  appears.  In  modern  Cairo,  and  in 
the  East  generally,  green  appears  frequently  side  by  side 
with  red,  where  blue  would  have  been  used  in  the  earlier 
times.  This  is  equally  true  of  the  works  of  the  middle  ages. 
In  the  early  manuscripts  and  in  stained  glass,  the  primary 
colors  were  chiefly  used,  although  other  colors  were  not 
entirely  excluded;  while,  in  later  times,  every  variety  of  shade 
and  tint  is  used  indiscriminately,  with  preference  for  none. 

149.  In  Moorish  art,  the  primary  colors  were,  used  in 
the  upper  portions  of  the  design  and  the  secondary  and  ter- 
tiary colors  in  the  lower  portions.     This  is  entirely  in  accord- 
ance with  natural  law,  as  the  primary  blue  is  shown  in  the 
sky,  the  secondary  green  in  the  trees  and  fields,  and  the  ter- 
tiaries  in  the  earth  itself.     This  color  scheme  is  also  observ- 
able in  flowers,  where  the  primary  colors  are  the  buds  and 
flowers  and  the  secondaries  are  the  leaves  and  stalks. 

150.  System  of  Moorish  Coloring. — The  system  of 
Moorish  coloring  might  be   considered   absolutely  perfect. 
All  the  surfaces  were  modeled  and  proportioned  according 
to  the  color  they  were  to  receive,  and,  in  using  the  colors 
blue,  red,  and  gold,  care  was  taken  to  place  them  in  such 
positions  that  they  should  be  best  seen  themselves  and  add 
most  to  the  general  effect.     On  molded  surfaces,  red  (the 
strongest  color  of  the  three)  was  placed  in  the  depths,  where 
it  might  be  softened  by  shadow,  and  never  on  a  raised  sur- 
face; blue  was  placed  in  the  shade,  but  not  deep  shade;  and 
gold  was  placed  on  all  the  surfaces  exposed  to  strong  light, 
for  it  was  evident  that  by  this  arrangement  alone  could  their 
true  value  be  obtained.     The  several  colors  are  either  sep- 
arated by  white  bands  or  by  the  shadow  caused  by  the  relief 
of  the  ornament  itself,  and  this  seems  to  be  an  absolute 
principle    required    in    coloring— colors    should    never    be 
allowed  to  impinge  on  one  another.     (See  Fig.  92.) 

151.  Interlaced    Ornament. — Moorish   interlaced 
ornament  is  governed  by  certain  geometrical  patterns  in  its 
formation,   and   although   the  number  of  these   patterns   is 
small   the  variety  of  designs  produced  on  them  is  great. 


FIG.  93 


164 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  165 

In  Fig.  93  (a)  is  shown  an  interlaced  pattern  consisting  (1) 
of  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  arranged  in  pairs,  the  distance 
between  each  pair  being  twice  the  distance  between  the  lines 
composing  each  pair,  and  (2)  of  diagonal  lines  drawn  through 
the  pattern  at  an  angle  of  45°,  and  spaced  a  distance  apart 
equal  to  the  vertical  and  horizontal  pairs.  The  diagonal 
lines  are  arranged  so  that  the  set  of  squares  formed  by  their 
intersection  will  contain  in  their  centers  the  intersection  of 
the  vertical  and  horizontal  pairs. 

In  Fig.  93  (b)  is  shown  a  slight  variation  of  the  preceding 
interlaced  pattern.  In  this  example  the  vertical  and  hori- 
zontal lines  are  drawn  singly  and  the  diagonal  lines  are 
drawn  in  pairs,  but  of  slightly  different  proportion.  The 
amount  of  Moorish  ornament  that  can  be  developed  from 
these  two  figures  is  unlimited,  and  the  Moors  themselves 
extended  even  this  limit  by  the  variety  of  coloring  in  the 
different  parts.  Figs.  91  (d)  and  (e)  are  based  on  the 
system  shown  in  Fig.  93  (a). 

152.  Moorish    Motifs. — No    matter     how    much    the 
whole  ornamentation   of    the   Moors  is  disguised,  it  is  all 
constructed  geometrically.     Their  fondness  for  geometrical 
forms  is  evinced  by  the  great  use  of  mosaics,  in  which  their 
imagination  had  full  play.     However  complicated  may  be 
their  patterns,  the  mosaics  are  all  extremely  simple  when 
the  principle  of  setting  them  is  once  understood.     They  all 
arise  from  the  intersection  of  equidistant  sets  of  lines  around 
fixed  centers.     [See  Fig.  89  (a)  and  (£).] 

153.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that    the  Mohammedan 
was  forbidden  by  the  Koran  to  execute  ornament  based  upon 
animal  or  vegetable  types,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  some 
of   the    characteristic   devices    found   in    the    Moorish   wall 
decorations  were  conventionalized  forms  based  upon  leaves 
and  flowers.     In  Fig.  93  (d) ,  (/),  (//),  (/),  M,  and  (/)  are 
six  forms  that  constitute  the  details  of  the  surface  decoration 
shown  in  Fig.  94,  and  it  can  be  readily  believed  that  these 
conventional    forms    were    derived    from    the    plant    forms 
shown  in  Fig.  93  (c),  (<?),  (g),  (i),  (£),  and  (/;/). 


166 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


51 


154.  Arabian  Ornament. — The  forms  just  mentioned 
enter  largely  into  the  characteristics  of  Arabian  ornament, 
although  not  to  such  a  marked  extent,  as  may  be  seen  in 
Fig.  95  (a)  to  (/).  Here,  the  characteristic  Arabian  inter- 
laced work  is  united  with  the  peculiar  foliated  terminal  that 


FIG.  94 

is  found  in  no  style  but  the  Arabian,  and  is  similar  to  the 
foliations  analyzed  in  Fig.  93. 

155.  In  tilework  and  inlay,  the  Arabians  were  particu- 
larly adept.  Fig.  95  (g)  and  (h)  shows  examples  of  their 
ingenuity  and  skill  in  the  design  of  tile  pavements. 

In  Fig.  91  (b)  is  shown  another  example  of  this  style  of 
ornament,  taken  from  a  mosaic  pavement  in  a  mosque  at 
Cairo,  Egypt.  Here,  the  geometrical  simplicity  of  the 
pattern  can  be  easily  traced,  as  the  design  consists  simply 


218-1  L  T  I0l     §  51 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  167 

of  two  horizontally  arranged  zigzag  lines,  crossed  at  regular 
intervals  by  sets  of  diagonally  arranged  zigzag  lines. 

156.  In  Fig.  91  (c)  is  shown  an  ornament  generated  on 
a  different  system,  but  on  a  similar  geometrical  idea.     This 
ornament,  too,   is    suggestive  of   the  fret   pattern,  though 
entirely  different  from  any  frets  that   have  hitherto  been 
observed.     However,  the  shape  of  the  enclosed  figure  abed 
ef,  it  will  be  observed,  is  identically  the  same  as  the  figure 
ghijkl,  and  the  repetition  and  alternate  arrangement  of 
these  two  peculiar  outlines  give  the  key  to  the  whole  system 
of  ornament  shown  in  the  figure. 

157.  Fig.  96  (d)   is   from   an  illuminated  copy  of  the 
Koran,  and  illustrates  the  influence  of  Byzantine  art  on  that  of 
Arabia.     The  general  construction  lines  of  the  ornament  are 
Byzantine  in  character,  while  the  filling  in  is  typically  Arabian. 

Another  pattern  is  shown  in  Fig.  96  (e),  and  consists  of  a 
number  of  scrolls  of  a  more  or  less  geometrical  character, 
and,  though  simple  in  itself,  it  is  fascinatingly  complicated 
in  its  conception.  The  design  is  executed  in  two  colors,  and 
a  little  study  will  show  that  the  outlines  of  the  two  colors 
are  identical.  The  light  portions  of  the  design  in  the  upper 
half  of  the  figure  are  a  duplication  of  the  dark  portions  of  the 
design  in  the  lower  half  of  the  figure,  and  vice  versa.  Every 
detail  on  one  half  is  exactly  reproducible  in  the  opposite 
color  on  the  other  half,  and,  if  the  figure  were  sawed  out  on 
the  line  dividing  the  two  colors,  it  would  produce  two  out- 
lines exactly  the  same  in  every  respect. 

158.  East    Indian    Ornament. — The    most    striking 
characteristics  of  East  Indian  ornament  are  continuity  and 
abundance  of  decoration.     The  surface  decoration  is  usually 
filled  up  entirely  with  a  profusion  of  ornamental  forms  that, 
if  not  exactly  alike,  are  very  similar.     The  ground  color  is 
always   warm   and  harmonious — occasionally   light,   though 
more  frequently  dark — which  serves  to  unite  the  designs  and 
to  add  greatly  to  the  general  effect. 

The  method  of  distribution  and  the  admirable  feeling  for 
color  procures  in  Indian  decoration  a  richness  and  calm  that 


FIG.  96 


168 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  169 

gives  it  an  undefinable  sense  of  repose.  The  designs  are 
usually  based  on  some  floral  type  and  are  treated  in  a  most 
conventional  manner,  and  though  the  imitation  bears  a  closer 
resemblance  to  nature  than  in  most  of  the  styles  already 
studied,  it  is  by  no  means  servile.  The  type  from  which  an 
ornament  is  derived  can  usually  be  recognized  without 
trouble,  and,  although  floral  ornament  is  occasionally  seen 
under  the  pure  art  form  characteristic  of  the  Egyptian  style, 
it  is  usually  treated  with  a  pliancy  of  execution  and  pictur- 
esqueness  of  idea  that  brings  it  to  a  closer  resemblance  to 
the  modern  style. 

In  the  execution,  however,  Indian  art  never  attempts  the 
rounding  of  a  form  (a  process  that  is  naturally  opposed  to 
the  idea  of  surface  decoration),  and  usually  confines  itself  to 
silhouette  drawings,  in  which  the  outline  is  shown  off  by  a 
dark  tint  on  light  grounds  or  by  a  light  tint  on  dark  grounds. 

159.  In  the  equal  distribution  of  surface  ornament  over 
the  grounds,  this  nation  exhibits  a  remarkable  perfection  of 
drawing.  An  exact  balance  is  obtained  between  the  various 
colors  used,  and  this  balance  is  carried  to  such  a  nicety  that 
it  is  practically  impossible  to  reproduce  any  of  their  woven 
or  embroidered  goods  with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  In  all 
their  woven  fabrics,  the  colors  are  so  fused  together  that  the 
entire  piece  of  goods  at  a  little  distance  presents  no  indi- 
vidual coloring,  but  a  neutralized  bloom. 

In  Fig.  96  (c)  is  shown  a  diaper  pattern  taken  from  an 
Indian  textile.  This  example  exhibits  the  regularity  of 
repeated  form  that  completely  fills  the  surface,  as  just 
described.  There  is  a  slight  tendency  toward  a  geometrical 
formation  observable  in  this  pattern,  where  the  wavy  line 
becomes  tangent  to  its  neighbor.  This  geometrical  pattern, 
however,  is  not  so  rigidly  carried  out  as  in  Fig.  96  (6), 
where  the  construction  lines  governing  the  main  details 
consist  merely  of  semicircles  connected  by  short,  straight 
lines,  thereby  forming  knees,  as  indicated  at  a.  The  style 
of  ornament  enclosed  in  the  geometrical  figures  thus  formed 
is  typical  of  Indian  design,  and  shows  a  number  of  forms 


170  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

tangent  to  a  general  stem,  all  of  which  may  have  had  their 
origin  in  brush  strokes  of  painted  work,  or  possibly  in  the 
shape  of  the  palm  leaf,  which  they  slightly  resemble. 

In  Fig.  96  (a)  is  shown  a  typical  example  of  Indian 
ornament  taken  from  a  woolen  fabric,  many  of  the  details  of 
which  will  be  found  similar  to  the  strokes  just  referred  to. 

160.  Turkish.  Ornament. — The  architecture  of  the 
Turks  is  patterned  after  the  early  Byzantine  style,  although 
their  system  of  ornamentation  is  a  modification  of  the 
Arabian  style.  In  fact,  it  may  be  considered  as  an  applica- 
tion of  Arabian  ornament,  without  any  understanding  of  the 
meaning,  derivation,  or  type  of  that  ornament. 

Constantinople  was  not  taken  by  the  Turks  until  1453, 
although  they  had  occupied  the  surrounding  countries  for 
over  a  century.  They  immediately  adopted  the  Byzantine 
style  of  architecture  for  their  mosques,  and  thus  St.  Sophia 
stands,  with  some  modifications,  as  the  type  of  Turkish 
mosque  down  to  the  present  day. 

When  the  art  of  one  people  is  borrowed  by  another  of  the 
same  religion  but  of  different  character,  temperament,  and 
customs,  the  resulting  designs  are  certain  to  show  the  defi- 
ciency of  intellect  or  refinement  that  the  borrowing  people 
possessed  in  contrast  to  that  of  those  from  whom  it  was 
borrowed;  and  this  is  the  case  with  the  Turks  when  com- 
pared with  the  Arabs.  There  is  the  same  difference  in 
refinement,  elegance,  and  judgment  between  the  Turkish 
ornament  and  Arabian  ornament  as  there  is  between  these 
two  peoples.  The  Turks  themselves  can  hardly  be  con- 
sidered an  artistic  nation.  They  have  built  buildings  and 
executed  designs  in  their  cities,  but  have  employed  foreign 
artists  to  do  the  work.  All  their  public  buildings,  therefore, 
present  a  mixed  style.  It  is  not  at  all  unusual  to  find  in  a 
Turkish  building  floral  ornaments  of  Arabian  and  Persian 
origin  side  by  side  with  details  from  Rome. 

The  Turks  were  the  first  of  the  Mohammedan  nations  to 
adopt  European  fashions  in  architecture,  and  their  modern 
buildings  and  palaces  are  the  work  of  European  architects 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  171 

and  artists,  and  are  designed  in  the  most  approved  European 
style. 

161 .  The  Turkish  embroideries  give  about  the  only  style 
of  ornament  that  can  be  considered  strictly  national,  as  work 
of  this  character  must  necessarily  exhibit  the  characteristics 
of  the  race,  and,  judging  from  this,  it  will  be  readily  seen 
that  their  art  instinct  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  India.     Indian 
embroidery  is  perfect  in  the  distribution  of  its  forms  and  in 
all  its  principles  of  ornamentation.     With  Turkish  ornament, 
the  only  examples  that  approach  any  degree  of  perfection  are 
found  in  the  carpets,  but  these  are  executed  mostly  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  are  probably  not  designed  by  Turks.    The  designs 
of  most  of  them  appear  more  Arabian,  and  differ  from  the 
Persian  carpets  in  being  more  conventional  in  their  foliage 
treatment. 

The  most  prominent  colors  in  Turkish  ornament  are  green 
and  black;  in  fact,  these  colors  form  a  feature  of  the  orna- 
ment. In  modern  Turkish  ornament,  green  is  much  more 
prominent  than  in  ancient  examples,  where  blue  was  the 
important  color. 

162.  Persian    Ornament. — The   outlines   of   Persian 
ornament  are  generally  taken  from  the  conceptions  of  Ara- 
bian architecture,  but  they  are  modified  by  Indian  tradition 
and  the  peculiar  genius  of  the  Persian  race.     The  floral  motif 
in  some  examples  is  scattered  through  the  decoration  with 
apparent  freedom,  and,  in  others,  it  is  inserted  in  the  linked 
network  and  usually  placed  at  the  intersection  of  lines;  but 
even  in  the  latter  case,  it  is  treated  in  a  manner  that  is  half 
way  between   the   Arabian   conventionality   and  the   Indian 
naturalism.     A  consideration  of  the  characteristics   of  the 
Persians  will  help  to  understand  this  more  fully. 

163.  Persian  Compared  With  Arabian  Art.— The 
Arabs  belonged  to  the  Mohammedan  sect  of  Omar,  while  the 
Persians  had  split  from  this  faith,  and  belonged  to  the  sect 
of  Ali,  and  were  great  drinkers  of  wine.     They  attributed 
to  flowers  a  symbolical  language,  and  did  not  exclude  the 
representation  of  flowers  in  their  decoration,  which  is  also 


172  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

animated  by  real  and  fantastic  animals,  and  sometimes, 
though  rarely,  with  the  human  figure.  The  resources  result- 
ing from  this  mixed  style  are  enhanced  by  the  manual  skill 
and  remarkable  fertility  possessed  by  the  Persians.  Book- 
binders, potters,  embroiderers,  and  miniature  painters 
emulate  one  another  in  taste  and  skill.  Persian  carpets  are 
still  considered  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  the  vases,  tiles, 
and  enamel  bricks  from  that  country  are  models  of  taste,  and 
European  manufacturers  endeavor  to  equal  them  by  imitation. 

164.     Persian    Compared   With    Indian  Art.  —  The 

Indian  and  Persian  styles  resemble  each  other  in  their  poly- 
chromatic decoration.  The  rule  is  usually  a  silhouette,  with 
geometrical  outlines  relieved  by  conventional  coloring  on  a 
dominating  generating  ground. 

The  great  attention  given,  in  Persia,  to  the  illumination  of 
manuscripts,  which  were  widely  spread  through  all  Moham- 
medan countries,  would  naturally  tend  to  spread  the  influence 
of  this  mixed  style,  and  the  decorations  of  houses  at  Cairo 
and  Damascus,  and  the  mosques  and  fountains  even  of  Con- 
stantinople, are  tainted  with  it  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 
Groups  of  natural  flowers  are  represented  in  vases  and 
enclosed  in  panels  of  conventional  Arabian  ornament. 


REVIEW    EXERCISES 

1.  What  difference  in  religious  influences  affected  the  spread  of 
Christian  and  Mohammedan  architecture? 

2.  Describe  the  general  characteristics  of  Moorish  ornament. 

3.  Describe  the  system  of  coloring  used  by  the   Moors  in  their 
ornament. 

4.  Into  what  classes  is  Mohammedan  ornament  divided? 

5.  Make  a  drawing  in  color  of  the  elevation  of  a  Moorish  arch  sup- 
ported by  two  or  four  columns  with  appropriate  decoration  in  the 
spandrels.     For  this,  the  general  idea  of  the  arch  may  be  taken  from 
Fig.  82,  84,  or  88;  the  capitals  of  the  columns  from  Fig.  86  or  94,  and 
the  color  scheme  from  Fig.  92. 

6.  Make  a  drawing  of  Moorish  interlaced  ornament  on  a  system  of 
intersecting  lines,  as  in  Fig,  93  (0)  or  (0) . 


HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 
AND  ORNAMENT 

(PART  4) 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 

(A.  D.  1500  TO  A.  D.  1800) 


INFLUENCES 

1.  The  influences  that  combined  and  caused  the  return 
to  classic  architectural  models    throughout  Europe  at  the 
beginning  of  the   15th  century  are  deeply  interesting  and 
must  be  thoroughly  understood  in  order  that  the  character  of 
the  reborn  style  may  be  comprehended.     The  term  Renais- 
sance   means    rebirth,    and   may    be    applied   not   only   to 
architecture,  but  also  to  literature,  painting,  and  manners 
and  customs  of  the  people. 

2.  Geographical. — The  Renaissance  movement  arose 
in  Italy  in  the  15th  century  and  spread  from  there  to  France, 
Germany,   England,   and  all  Western   Europe.     Its   details 
varied  in  the  different  countries,  but  the  main  characteristics 
were  followed  out  everywhere. 

3.  Geological    and    Climatic. — The    geological    and 
climatic  influences  varied   in   different   countries    and   lent 
local  characteristics  to  the  style  in  some  places. 

4.  Religious. — The    invention   of    printing    about   the 
middle  of  the  15th  century  led  to  a  spread  of  knowledge,  a 
spirit  of  inquiry,   and  a  diffusion  of    freedom    of    thought 
generally  throughout  Western  Europe.     Since  the  fall  of  the 

COPVHIOHTCD    BY    INTERNATIONAL    TIXTBOOK    COMPANY.       ALL    HIOHT*    HKSCMVKO 

§51 


174  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

Roman  Empire  literature  had  been  despised  by  all  except 
the  clergy.  There  had  been  no  books  in  any  European 
language  for  nearly  a  thousand  years;  hence,  there  was  no 
occasion  for  the  people  to  learn  even  to  read  and  write. 
The  monks  wrote  missals  and  translated  portions  of  the 
Bible,  and  many  most  elaborately  decorated  pages  bear 
witness  today  to  the  conscientiousness  of  their  motives. 
However,  these  were  out  of  the  reach  of  the  people  and 
were  read  in  the  monasteries  only. 

Through  the  influence  of  the  classic  literature  that  was 
published  in  their  language  for  the  first  time,  the  Teutonic 
races  developed  a  desire  to  break  away  from  the  influences 
of  the  Church.  This  desire  was  encouraged  by  the  preach- 
ings of  Martin  Luther,  in  Germany,  and  of  John  Wyclif,  in 
England,  in  which  countries  the  Reformations  of  the  Church 
proceeded  side  by  side  with  the  Renaissance  in  architecture. 
In  England,  however,  where  the  Reformation  took  a  strong 
hold  on  the  people,  few  new  churches  were  built,  as  there 
were  so  many  erected  during  the  previous  period,  but  there 
was  great  activity  in  civil  and  domestic  architecture.  Henry 
VIII  repudiated  the  authority  of  the  pope,  confiscated  the 
Church  properties,  and  distributed  among  laymen  the  wealth 
and  lands  of  the  monasteries.  This  led  to  the  building  of 
great  manor  houses,  etc.  by  the  possessors  of  these  vast 
estates.  In  Italy,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Reformation  took 
no  hold  at  all.  Numerous  churches  were  built  or  rebuilt  in 
the  new  style,  but  comparatively  few  civil  or  domestic 
structures  were  erected. 

5.  Political  and  Historical. — As  a  marked  intellectual 
development  always  manifests  itself  first  in  literature,  it 
soon  affects  the  public  taste  generally  and  thus  influ- 
ences the  architectural  development  of  the  period.  Dante, 
Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio,  three  celebrated  Italian  writers, 
aided  greatly  in  the  spread  of  the  newly  discovered  classic 
literature  that  finally  caused  a  revolt  against  medieval  forms. 

In  1453,  Constantinople  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks, 
and  many  Greek  scholars  fled  from  there  to  Italy,  where 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  175 

their  learning  was  also  added  to  that  of  local  scholars,  and 
classic  ideas  were  further  instilled  into  the  people. 

Among  other  manuscripts  discovered  and  translated  at 
this  time  was  a  book  on  classic  architecture  written  by 
Vitrtivius  in  the  year  50  I).  C.  This  gave  forms  and  pro- 
portions for  the  Roman  orders  and  was  immediately  estab- 
lished as  a  textbook,  which  is  used  as  a  reference  in  various 
forms  down  to  the  present  day. 

G.  The  architecture  of  Italy  was  the  first  to  be  affected, 
as  the  Gothic  style  had  never  taken  a  firm  hold  there.  The 
problems  of  vaulting  that  had  contributed  so  much  toward 
the  development  of  the  style  in  Northern  Europe  did  not 
trouble  the  builders  of  Italy,  where  Roman  remains  such 
as  the  Pantheon,  the  Basilica  Maxentius,  the  Colosseum,  etc., 
presented  models  for  further  constructions,  or  afforded 
places  sufficiently  large  for  Christian  services. 

Feudalism  had  never  taken  the  hold  on  old  classic  Italy 
that  it  had  on.  France,  Germany,  and  England,  so  that  the 
principal  cities  grew  individually  strong  and  developed  a 
spirit  of  civic  pride  and  municipal  enterprise  (see  History 
of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  3,  Art.  62).  As  classic 
architecture  came  to  be  considered  the  proper  form  for 
all  buildings,  these  cities  immediately  adopted  it  for  their 
public  structures  and  private  palaces.  Hence,  in  Italy,  the 
Renaissance  architecture  is  varied  according  to  the  city, 
rather  than  according  to  its  period  as  in  other  countries. 

7.  When  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  was  divided 
between  his  three  grandsons,  in  843  A.  D.,  the  Italian 
portion,  including  Lombardy,  fell  to  Lothaire  (see  Fig.  26, 
History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  2).  Later, 
Lombardy  was  absorbed  by  Otho  and  became  a  part  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire.  However,  owing  to  constant  dis- 
putes between  the  succeeding  emperors  and  the  popes, 
Italy  suffered  from  almost  constant  internal  dissensions 
and  strife. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  12th  century,  the  emperor 
attempted  to  restrict  the  liberties  of  the  cities  in  Northern 

ILT  303—31 


176  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

Italy.  This  led  to  the  formation  of  the  League  of  Lom- 
bardy,  which  consisted  of  twenty-three  cities  that  united  and 
declared  the  right  of  electing  their  own  magistrates  and 
making  their  own  laws.  The  emperor  then  formed  an 
opposition  league  of  opposing  cities,  and  between  them  war 
existed  for  9  years.  In  1176,  the  emperor  acknowledged  the 
right  of  the  republics  to  govern  themselves. 

8.  The  most  important  of  these  Italian  republics  were 
Florence  and  Venice.  The  glory  of  Venice  began  during 
the  Crusades,  as  many  of  the  crusaders  passed  through 
there  and  traveled  thence  by  sea  to  Palestine.  The  ships 
brought  back  silks,  spices,  and  jewels  from  the  Orient,  and 
Venice  became  one  of  the  richest  cities  of  Europe. 

Florence  grew  strong  through  the  commercial  spirit  of 
her  citizens.  There  were  large  manufacturers  of  silk  and 
woolen  goods  and  jewelry.  Many  of  the  citizens  followed 
banking  as  a  profession,  and  their  gold  coin,  which  was 
called  a  florin,  and  was  first  coined  in  1252,  became  the 
standard  coin  of  Europe. 

One  of  these  Florentine  families  of  merchants,  Medici  by 
name,  rose  to  great  prominence  in  Florentine  politics,  and 
finally  Lorenzo  de  Medici  rose  to  the  head  of  the  government 
and  was  sole  ruler  of  Florence  from  1478  until  his  death  in 
1492.  His  splendid  patronage  of  all  branches  of  the  fine  arts 
gained  for  Florence  the  reputation  of  being  the  most  artistic 
city  in  Europe.  De  Medici  collected  manuscripts,  which  he 
deposited  in  the  public  library,  and  purchased  many  pictures 
and  pieces  of  sculpture  by  the  most  prominent  artists  of  the 
age.  About  this  time  war  with  France  brought  into  Italy 
Charles  VIII,  Louis  XII,  and  Francis  I,  three  successive 
kings  of  France,  and  the  art  treasures  and  manuscripts 
awoke  in  these  sovereigns  the  desire  for  similar  things  in 
France.  This  Medici  family  afterwards  gave  eight  dukes  to 
Tuscany,  two  queens  to  France,  and  four  popes  to  the 
Vatican,  so  that  its  rise  to  prominence  affected  the  political 
and  historical  conditions  not  only  of  Italy  but  also  of  France 
for  many  generations. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  177 


CHARACTERISTICS 

9.  Renaissance  architecture  was  the  characteristic  style 
throughout  civilized  Europe  during  the  15th  and  16th  cen- 
turies.    It  was  a  deliberate  break  in  the  system  of  designing 
that  had  characterized  the  buildings  up  to  this  time.     The 
nature  and  requirements  of  the  materials  no  longer  fixed  the 
conditions  of  the  design,  but  the  materials  were  forged  to 
fulfil  conditions  imposed  on  them  by  the  classic  designs.    The 
leading  characteristic  of  the  style  was  the  classic  orders  used 
decoratively,  as  had  been  done  by  the  Romans,  as  well  as 
structurally,  as  were  the  columns  and  piers  during  the  Gothic 
period.    Buildings  erected  for  modern  uses  were  designed  in 
the  classic  style  of  the  temple  and.  basilica;  but  as  the  style 
developed,  many  new  and  pleasing  arrangements  of  these 
classic  orders  were  arrived  at,  so  that  a  style  was  finally  evolved 
from  which  grew  all  other  styles  down  to  the  present  day. 

10.  In  Italy,  where  the  movement  started  in  the  15th 
century,  there  were  many  skilful  jewelers,  goldsmiths,  silver- 
smiths,  and    other  craftsmen    that   naturally    aided   in    the 
expansion  of  the  Renaissance  ideas.     On  account  of  their 
generally    acknowledged    good    taste,   architects    frequently 
consulted  these  craftsmen  and  in  many  cases  became  their 
pupils  for  the   purpose  of   acquiring   experience  in  design. 
Therefore,    when   buildings   came   to    be   designed   by  men 
that   had    received    their    training    largely    under   jewelers, 
goldsmiths,  painters,  and   sculptors,  it  is  not   strange   that 
finished   results    were    given    more    consideration    than   the 
principles  of  construction  that  led  to  the  end.     The  Italian 
schools  of  painting  also  affected  the  buildings  in  this  respect, 
as  they  created  the  tendency  to  consider  buildings  as  works 
of  art  instead  of  structural  problems. 

Generally  speaking,  there  was  a  tendency  to  combine  the 
Roman  designs  with  the  Gothic  construction.  The  body  of 
the  walls  and  the  decorative  facing  were  one  and  the  same 
thing  constructively,  because  the  architects  of  the  period 
did  not  perceive  that  the  Roman  architecture  that  they  had 


178  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

learned  to  admire  was  simply  a  shell  over  a  concrete  filling. 
The  Renaissance  architect  therefore  continued  to  build  walls 
of  cut  stone  and  bonded  exterior  details  well  into  the  body. 
During  the  better  periods  of  Gothic  art,  each  stone  was 
finished  and  carved  in  the  shop  before  it  was  brought  to  the 
building — a  method  that  developed  a  high  degree  of  crafts- 
manship among  the  masons  and  compelled  the  sculptor  to 
suit  each  piece  of  stone  to  the  decoration  it  was  to  receive. 
During  the  Renaissance,  however,  the  carving  was  executed 
after  the  stones  were  in  the  building,  and  the  joints  in  the 
stonework  could  not  therefore  be  arranged  as  best  suited  the 
architectural  conditions. 

1 1 .  Architectural  compositions  were  considered  more  as 
a  picture  of  masses  and  lines  than  as  structures  for  a  utili- 
tarian purpose,  as  they  were  often  designed  by  men  whose 
training  had  been  under  painters  and  workers  in  the  precious 
metals.     Many  of  the  Roman  palaces  designed  under  these 
conditions  present  a  stately  appearance,  where  the  pilasters, 
friezes,  cornices,  etc.,  are  used  simply  as  elements  of  a  line 
composition  to  divide  the  fagade  of  the  building  into  pleasing 
proportions.     For  this  reason,  it  is  not  fair  to  state  that 
Renaissance  architecture  was  purely  imitative,  for  new  and 
original  features  were  introduced  and  architecture  came  to 
be  more  individualized  and  less  local  or  national  in  character. 
Many   architects   invented    combinations   that  characterized 
their  work  and  thus  established  styles  or  systems  of  designs 
that  were  followed  by  their  pupils  and  admirers  for  several 
generations. 

12.  The  Renaissance  architects  unhesitatingly  borrowed 
the   Byzantine    treatment    of   the    dome,    but   increased    its 
exterior   prominence    by   raising  it   high  on  the  drum,   in 
which  large  windows  were  inserted  to  illuminate  the  interior. 
They  also  introduced  into  wall  treatment  massive  rusticated 
masonry,  wherein  the   actual  roughness  of  the  stone  was 
made  an  architectural  motif,  as  in  Fig.  1;  whereas,  hereto- 
'fore,  classic  walls  had  been  of  smooth  stone  or  overlaid  with 
rich  marbles. 


FIG.  1 


180  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

In  decorative  details,  great  innovations  were  made. 
Bronze  gates,  rich  grilles,  lamps,  and  rails  of  elaborate 
metalwork  were  introduced,  and  wall  decorations  with 
motifs  introduced  from  jthe  classic,  Gothic,  and  Saracenic 
schools  characterized  the  interiors. 

The  ribbed  vaulting  of  the  Gothic  architects  was  aban- 
doned soon  after  the  Renaissance  movement,  and  the  old 
Roman  method  with  the  solid  arch  was  revived.  This  did 
not  occur  in  actual  construction,  however,  so  much  as  in 
decorative  form,  for  instead  of  the  solid-concrete  vault  of  the 
Romans,  the  Renaissance  architects  covered  many  of  their 
halls  and  staircases  with  richly  decorated,  semicylindrical 
ceilings,  which  were  simply  plastered  on  a  wooden  frame- 
work. 

ANALYTICAL    STUDY 

13.  Before  considering  the  examples  and  characteristics 
of  the  style  in  each  country,  a  comparison  should  be  made 
between  the  characteristics  of  the  Renaissance  and  those  of 
the  Gothic.  Although  several  of  the  most  imposing  cathe- 
drals of  Europe  were  erected  during  the  Renaissance  period, 
the  style  found  its  most  luxurious  expression  in  municipal 
structures,  palaces,  country  residences,  and  elaborate  fronts 
of  town  buildings  and  monuments  of  civic  improvement. 


PLANS 

14.  Gothic  plans  were  irregular  and  were  composed  of 
a  multitude  of  parts,  tending  to  create  a  feeling  of  large- 
ness. They  included  towers,  spires,  turrets,  etc.,  and  all 
passages  and  apartments  were  as  far  as  possible  vaulted  in 
stone,  except  in  the  minor  structures.  All  Renaissance 
plans  are  symmetrical  and  are  proportional,  so  that  each 
part  bears  a  certain  relation  to  every  other  part.  Few  parts, 
simply  arranged,  tend  to  make  the  buildings  appear  small. 
(See  Fig.  2.) 

In  the  Gothic  period,  interiors  of  churches  were  broken 
into  chapels  and  numerous  subordinate  details,  and  were 


FRONT 


182  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

covered  with  vaults  or  open  timber  roofs;  whereas,  the 
Renaissance  churches  were  planned  on  Roman  lines  and 
were  covered  with  domes  and  barrel  vaults.  The  Renais- 
sance church  plan  seldom  includes  more  than  three  or  four 
compartments,  and  its  grandeur  is  produced  by  spaciousness 
and  decoration.  

WALLS 

15.  Gothic  walls  were  built  of  rough  masonry,  and  con- 
sisted of  small  stones  laid  in  irregular  courses,  with  cut 
ashlar  facings  at  the  angles.  The  gables  were  steep  and 
were  richly  ornamented.  Renaissance  walls  were  of  ashlar 
masonry  throughout,  which,  in  the  lower  stories,  was  some- 
times heavily  rusticated,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  stones 
were  large,  uniform  in  size,  and  laid  in  regular  courses. 
Gables  gave  way  to  low  pediments  and  semicircular  vault 
ends,  simplicity,  and  breadth  of  style  (see  Fig.  3). 


ROOFS 

16.  The  roofs  in  the  Gothic  period  were  steep  and 
pointed,  in  order  to  cover  the  vaulting.  The  vaulting 
added  richness  to  the  interior  through  its  multiplicity  of 
ribs,  bosses,  and  pendants.  Open  timber  roofs,  candidly 
displaying  their  construction  in  richly  carved  details,  were 
used  in  domestic  architecture,  and  chimneys,  spires,  turrets, 
and  towers  contributed  to  establish  an  intricate  and  pic- 
turesque roof  line. 

Renaissance  roofs  were  low  and  flat,  following  the  slope 
of  the  classic  pediment.  The  vaulting  was  after  the  Roman 
pattern,  that  is,  semicylindrical  and  without  ribs.  Square 
spaces  were  covered  with  a  dome  supported  on  pendentives, 
as  in  Byzantine  structures,  and  the  soffits  were  plastered 
and  richly  decorated  in  fresco.  The  dome  on  the  exterior 
was  raised  in  order  to  form  a  conspicuous  detail  in  the 
external  composition,  so  that  in  each  instance  there  were 
virtually  two  domes,  one  for  internal  effect  and  the  other 
for  external  effect.  In  Italy,  the  real  slope  of  the  roofs  was 


184  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

hidden  as  much  as  possible,   but  in  Northern    Europe,   it 
was  made  dn  element  of  the  design. 


COLUMNS 

17.  When  used  in  the  Gothic  buildings,  the   columns 
were   purely    structural,  witnout    any    fixed    proportion   of 
length  to  thickness.     The  capitals  and  bases  were  either 
simply  molded  or  richly  foliated,  according  to  the  period, 
and  although  the  shafts  were  frequently  clustered,  they  were 
never  planted  against  a  wall  purely  for  decorative  purposes. 

Renaissance  columns  were  designed  after  the  five  orders 
of  classic  architecture,  which  at  this  time  became  the  rule 
for  everything.  Columns  and  pilasters  were  frequently 
appliqued  against  the  wall  of  a  building  like  a  buttress  but 
purely  for  decorative  purposes.  Thus,  fagades  came  to  be 
divided  into  three  parts,  namely,  basement,  superstructure,  and 
roof,  in  the  proportion  of  pedestal,  column,  and  entablature 
of  the  order  that  was  designed  to  stand  against  them,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  shafts  were  frequently  rusticated, 
and  they  were  often  fluted,  or  wreathed  with  bands  of 
foliage  or  fruit.  

OPENINGS 

18.  Openings    were    placed   wherever    required   in    the 
Gothic  period,  without  any  attempt  at  symmetry  or  center- 
ing of  one  window  over  another.     The  windows  were  large, 
divided  by  mullions,  and  glazed  in  richly  designed  painted 
glass.     The  jambs  were  formed  in  receding  planes,  in  the 
angles   of  which  small  circular  shafts  with  carved  capitals 
support  a  richly  molded  pointed  arch. 

Renaissance  openings  were  symmetrically  disposed 
throughout  the  facade,  the  doors  usually  being  in  the 
middle,  while  the  windows  were  evenly  distributed  each 
side  and  one  over  another  in  the  different  stories.  The 
windows  were  small  in  Southern  Europe,  and  square  or 
circular-headed,  usually  without  mullions,  while  in  Northern 
Europe,  they  were  large  and  frequently  possessed  mullioned 


186  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

subdivisions.  Instead  of  receding  jambs,  there  was  a 
projecting  architrave  molded  and  frequently  carved,  but 
designed  on  classic  lines,  with  a  pedimented  or  circular  top 
(see  Fig.  4).  

MOLDINGS 

19.  Moldings  in  Gothic  architecture  were  varied  and 
capricious,  consisting  almost  entirely  of  boltels  and  fillets 
arranged  in  any  convenient  manner,  without  rule  or  regula- 
tion as  to  size  or  order  of  repetition.  The  parapet,  either 
traceried  or  battlemented,  surmounted  the  wall  in  place  of  a 
cornice,  and  possessed  little  projection  except  in  military 
architecture,  where  it  was  supported  on  corbels  with  machi- 
colations between.  Vertical  features  were  very  marked,  and 
buttresses,  pinnacles,  and  turrets  united  in  giving  the  effect 
of  verticality. 

Renaissance  architecture  presents  its  symmetrically 
molded  cornice  as  one  of  the  essential  details  of  every 
building.  Where  several  orders  were  used  in  different 
stories,  a  separate  cornice  marked  each  story,  while  a 
larger  and  bolder  cornice  overtopped  them  all  at  the  roof 
line,  as  in  Fig.  5  (a).  These  cornices  were  molded  accord- 
ing to  the  classic  models,  but  new  combinations  were 
introduced.  The  carvings  were  not  restricted  to  the 
classic  designs,  but  partook  of  the  foliated  independence 
of  the  Gothic  period.  String-courses  and  sill-courses  are 
strongly  emphasized,  while  vertical  elements  are  broken  or 
suppressed,  the  general  effect  being  seen  in  the  classic 
horizontal  tendency  of  the  lines. 


ORNAMENT 

20.  Stained-glass  decoration  in  the  immense  traceried 
windows  was  characteristic  of  the  Gothic  style.  The  human 
figure  carved  life  size  in  niches  and  along  the  jambs  of  the 
portals  gave  scale  to  the  buildings  and  details,  so  that  their 
relative  sizes  were  at  once  apparent.  Color  as  an  exterior 
embellishment  was  attained  by  the  use  of  marbles  or  natural 


v- 


(a) 


188  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

colored  stones — never  by  artificial  means.  Carving  was 
grotesque  in  character  and  crudely  executed,  but  in  the  best 
examples,  it  was  decorative  in  character  and  in  harmony 
with  the  construction.  Pinnacles,  buttresses,  and  arches 
were  richly  embellished  when  required,  but  were  never 
introduced  unless  the  structural  conditions  demanded  them. 

Stained  glass  in  the  Renaissance  was  almost  unknown. 
Opaque  color  was  used  for  interior  wall  decoration,  and 
elaborate  frescos  of  religious  and  allegorical  subjects,  by 
the  most  prominent  artists  of  the  age,  were  introduced  in 
all  the  principal  buildings. 

Graffito  decoration,  consisting  of  colored  and  roughly 
scratched  plaster,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5  (t>),  was  sometimes 
used  on  the  exteriors.  The  human  figure  was  rarely  carved 
in  its  natural  size,  but  was  usually  executed  much  larger. 
Architects  of  this  period  were  frequently  skilled  painters, 
sculptors,  and  metal  workers.  Michelangelo,  for  instance, 
designed  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's  Cathedral,  at  Rome, 
painted  the  celebrated  ceiling  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  of  the 
Vatican,  and  also  executed  many  of  the  decorative  sculptures 
that  adorn  the  grounds. 

21.  In  studying  the  Renaissance  as  it  developed  in  each 
country,  particular  note  should  be  made  of  the  different 
influences  that  affected  the  style.  With  this  period  a  more 
intimate  knowledge  is  gained  of  the  architects  that  are 
responsible  for  the  designs.  The  influences  under  which 
these  architects  studied  and  worked  affect  the  results  quite 
as  much  as  the  climatic,  religious,  and  political  characteristics 
of  the  country. 

In  the  17th  century,  after  the  Renaissance  style  had 
become  as  servile  an  imitation  of  ancient  Rome  as  possible, 
a  reaction  for  originality  set  in  and  a  lot  of  meaningless 
detail  was  introduced  that  caused  a  rapid  decline  in  the 
style.  Fronts  of  buildings  were  built  on  sinuous  curves 
instead  of  straight,  columns  were  placed  in  front  of  pilasters, 
and  pediments  were  broken  in  the  middle  and  sculptured 
figures  placed  within. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  189 


ITALIAN   RENAISSANCE 

22.  Renaissance  architecture  in  Italy  may  be  divided 
into  three  separate  styles  of  design,  each  partaking  of  the 
same  general  characteristics,  but  differing  from  one  another 
according  to  differences  of  local  influences. 


FLORENTINE    RENAISSANCE 


INFLUENCES 

23.  Geographical. — Florence  consisted  of  a  group  of 
cities  made  up  of  a  central  governing  city  and  a  number  of 
smaller  cities,  over  which  the  chief  one  held  power. 

24.  Geological. — In  Tuscany  were  quarries  of  granite 
and  marble,  and  the  monumental  character  of  these  materials 
affected  the  style  in  this  community. 

25.  Climatic. — Florence  being  located  in  a  bright  and 
sunny  country  and  quite  warm  during  the  summer,  the  win- 
dows in  its  buildings  had  to  be  made  small. 

26.  Religious. — The    Church,    which    was    always    a 
powerful  factor  in  Renaissance  architecture,  was  represented 
in  Florence  by  Savonarola,  a  Dominican  preacher  and  great 
reformer.     His   policy   influenced    the    city    materially,   and 
although  he  was  suppressed  by  the  pope,  his  influence  on 
the  minds  of  the  people  continued  to  be  felt. 

27.  Political  and  Historical. — The  independent  cities 
of  Italy  formed  leagues  during  this  period  and  one  city  ruled 
over  the  others.     Pisa  became  subject  to  Florence  in  1406, 
and  the  latter  city  soon  became  the  dominating  power  in 
Italy,  as  well  as  the  leading  city  in  art  and  literature.     In 
1494,  Charles  VIII  of  France  invaded  Italy  and  took  posses- 
sion of  Florence. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  191 

CHARACTERISTICS 

28.  Florentine  Renaissance  palaces  are  usually  built  of 
massive  blocks  of  rustic  masonry,  which  gives  them  a  fine, 
rugged  dignity  that  characterizes  the  style.     They  are  built 
around  interior  courts,  the  interior  walls  resting  on  columns 
and   thus  forming   an  arcade    on   four  sides   of   the  court, 
similar  to  the  cloisters    in   the   monasteries  (see   Fig.  6). 
There  are  no  columns  or  pilasters  on  the  exterior,  and  the 
fagades  in  consequence  are  particularly  severe.     A  massive 
cornice  crowning  the  walls  is  the  only  exterior  detail  of  a 
classic  character,  except  where  columns  or  pediments  are 
used  in  the  windows. 

The  Florentine  school,  or  system,  of  Renaissance  design 
is  expressive  of  formidable  dignity  and  structural  severity 
on  the  exterior,  but  displays  the  most  delicate  appreciation 
of  refinement  and  luxury  in  the  treatment  of  the  court  eleva- 
tions and  the  arrangement  of  the  interior  plan.  Large 
rooms,  high  ceilings,  'and  broad,  unbroken  wall  surfaces, 
richly  decorated  with  frescos  and  arabesque  designs,  are 
characteristic  in  all  the  Italian  schools  of  Renaissance  design, 
but  in  Florence  particularly  this  interior  treatment  is  to  be 
seen  at  its  best,  on  account  of  the  omission  of  columns  and 
pilasters  as  the  principal  feature  of  interior  decoration. 

29.  There  are  three  types  of  window:    the  arched  type, 
in  which  a  column  divides  the  opening  vertically  and  sup- 
ports the  ends  of  two  smaller  arches  under  a  main  rusticated 
arch,  as  in  the  upper  stories  of  the  Riccardi  Palace,  Fig.  1; 
the  architrave  type,  where  the  sections  of  the  openings  are 
molded  and  a  pediment,  or  cornice,  supported  on  consoles 
covers  the  top,  as  in  the  lower  story  of  the  Riccardi  Palace; 
and  the  columnar  type,  where  a  column,  or  pilaster,  flanks 
each  side  of  the  opening  and  supports  an  entablature,  or 
pediment,  as  in  the  Pandolfini  Palace,  Fig.  10. 


EXAMPLES 

30.     The   architectural   examples  in   the   Italian   Renais- 
sance style  will  be  grouped  under  the  names  of  the  architects 

I  L  T  303—32 


FIG.  7 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  193 

that  were  responsible  for  the  establishment  of  each  particular 
style  or  school  of  design.  As  has  been  stated,  many  of 
these  architects  acquired  their  training  under  goldsmiths 
and  painters,  and  the  influences  of  this  training  is  more  or 
less  evident  in  their  works. 

31.  Brunelleschi. — Filippo  Brunelleschi,  who  studied 
at  Rome,  built  the  dome  over  the  cathedral  at   Florence. 
(See  Fig.  36,  History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  3.) 
This  was  the  first  use  of  the  dome  as  an  external  feature. 
Although  the  dome  is  a  classic  detail  and  Brunelleschi  gave 
much  time  to  the  study  of  the  construction  of  the  Pantheon 
and  other  buildings  at  Rome,  the  result  of  his  work  on  the 
Florence  Cathedral  shows   strong  Gothic  influences.      The 
dome  is  octagonal  in  plan,  is  pointed  instead  of  semicircular, 
and  is  supported  on  eight  main  ribs  and  sixteen  intermediate 
ones. 

32.  St.   Spirlto  Church. — The  church  St.  Spirito  was 
built  on   the   plan   of    a  basilica.     The   aisles  were  carried 
around    the    transepts    and   choir,    as    shown    in    the   plan, 
Fig.  2   (£),   and    the    building    itself    was    covered    with    a 
wooden    roof.     The    interior    is    interesting    because    it    is 
probably  the  first  in  which  the  columns   of  the  nave  were 
placed  under  small,  individual  fragments  of  an  entablature, 
from  which  the  nave  arches  sprung  (see  Fig.  7).    This  feature 
became  prominent  in  many  later  Renaissance  interiors  in 
other  countries. 

33.  Riccardi  Palace. — The  Riccardi  Palace,  Fig.  1,  com- 
pleted in  the  year  1430,  by  Michaelozzo,  a  contemporary  of 
Brunelleschi,  was  the  first  residence  erected  in  the  Renais- 
sance style.     It  is  an  imposing  structure  with  a  rectangular 
fagade  two  stories  in  height,  standing  over  a  massive  base- 
ment, and  crowned  with  a  classic  cornice  of  almost  excessive 
proportions. 

The  general  exterior  appearance  of  these  palaces  is  some- 
what fortress-like  and  forbidding,  but  they  were  nearly 
always  built  around  an  interior  courtyard,  which  was  light 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  195 

and  cheerful  and  was  surrounded  by  a  vaulted  colonnade  on 
three  and  sometimes  on  four  sides.  They  afforded  shady, 
open-air  resting  places  within  the  palaces  and  added  much  to 
the  comforts  of  the  buildings  as  residences,  besides  mate- 
rially enhancing  their  architectural  effect. 

34.  Pittl    Palace.— The  Pitti  Palace,   Fig.  8,  by  Bru- 
nelleschi,  embodies  the  same  ideas  on  a  much  larger  scale, 
but   the    cornice  is    too  small    for  so    massive   a  building. 
Here,  the  wall  surface  is  broken  by  heavy  rusticated  pilasters 
in  two  stories,  while  the  windows  on  the  garden  wings  are 
small  and  unobtrusive.     The  windows  on  the  court,  however, 
are  exceedingly  wide,  occupying,  with  their  flanking  columns 
and  pilasters,  the  full  space  between  the  rusticated  orders. 

35.  Leonl    Battista  Albert!   was   a   deep    student  of 
classic  literature,  a  writer,  a  poet,  and  a  musician.     He,  with 
Brunelleschi,  literally  started  the  Renaissance  style  in  Italy. 
He  wrote  a  treatise  on  architecture  that  materially  influenced 
the  minds  of  his  students  and  followers   and  did  much  to 
popularize  the  style.     His  design  of  the  Ruccellai  Palace  is 
the  first  Renaissance  building  in  which  superimposed  pilasters 
were  used  on  the  exterior.     This  structure  is  lighter  in  style 
and  more  refined  in  character  than  the  Pitti  Palace  (Fig.  8) 
of  Brunelleschi,  but  the  crowning  cornice  is  so  much  smaller 
in  comparison  to  the  front  of  the  building  that  much  of  the 
dignity  of  the  composition  is  lost. 

36.  Church    of    St.     Andrea    Mantua. — St.   Andrea 
Mantua,  the  plan  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  2  (a),  is  impor- 
tant as  a  type  from  which  many  Renaissance  churches  were 
modeled.     It   possesses    no    aisles,    but   its   broad  nave  is 
crossed  by  a  transept,  and  chapels  alternating  with  entrances 
are  grouped  along  the  sides.     The  nave  is  covered  with  a 
coffe'red  ceiling  in  the  form  of  a  barrel  vault  springing  from 
a    classic    entablature   supported   over   Corinthian  pilasters. 
The  pilasters  stand  on  pedestals  and  continue  into  the  tran- 
sept.    Over  the  intersection  of  the  transept  and  nave  rises 
a  magnificent  dome  on  a  tall  drum,  which  is  pierced  with 
windows  to  light  the  interior. 


FIG.  9 


FIG.  10 


196 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  197 

37.  Strozzi     Palace. — The    Strozzi     Palace,    Fig.    9, 
erected  in  1490,  may  be  taken  as  a  typical  example  of  the 
Florentine   style  of  Renaissance  design.     The  windows  of 
the  first  story  are  protected  by  heavy  iron  gratings,  while 
the  entrance  is  guarded  by  a  heavy  iron  gate. 

This  fortress-like  arrangement  is  due  to  the  fact  that  these 
palaces  were  part  castle  and  part  residence.  During  the 
frequent  local  wars  of  this  period,  it  was  often  necessary 
for  the  nobility  to  retire  within  their  palaces  and  defend 
them  against  the  attack  of  an  invading  army.  The  exterior 
was  therefore  made  very  formidable,  not  only  in  appearance, 
but  also  in  fact,  while  the  elevations  on  the  court  present 
an  appearance  much  more  in  accordance  with  the  idea  of 
domestic  life  and  household  comforts. 

The  broad  entrance  door  in  the  center  of  the  fagade  was  a 
carriage  entrance,  or  driveway,  into  the  court,  and  from  this 
court,  under  the  shade  of  the  surrounding  arcade,  several 
doorways  gave  access  to  different  parts  of  the  palace.  The 
upper  stories  of  the  building,  though  executed  in  the  same 
style  of  heavy  rustic  ashlar,  were  provided  with  more  liberal 
arched  window  openings,  which  were  divided  by  a  central 
columnar  mullion  and  two  smaller  arches  extending  from 
the  mullion  to  the  jamb  on  each  side. 

38.  Pandolfiiii  Palace.— The  Pandolfini  Palace,  Fig.  10, 
designed   by    Raffael,   was   built  over  half   a  century   later 
than  the  Riccardi.     The  rusticated  work  is  here  confined  to 
the    portal   and   the   quoin   stones   on    the    angles.     Classic 
details  appear  on  the  exterior  of  buildings  about  this  time, 
and  in  this  example  take  the  form  of  pilasters  at  the  sides 
and  of  pediments  over  the  window  openings,  while  a  pedestal 
supports  the  sill. 

39.  Court   of   Vecchio   Palace. — The    court    of    the 
Vecchio  Palace,  Fig.  6,  was  remodeled  in  the  16th  century, 
when    the    Renaissance    was    approaching    its  most    classic 
period.     The  columns  surrounding  the  open  central  space 
were  elaborately  carved  and  ribbed,  while  the  soffits  and 
side  walls  were  painted  in  elaborate  and  brilliant  designs. 

1  L  T  101—18 


198  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


ROMAN    RENAISSANCE 


INFLUENCES 

40.  Geographical,  Geological,  and  Climatic. — The 

geographical,  geological,  and  climatic  influences  of  the 
Roman  Renaissance  period  are  the  same  as  those  of  Central 
Italy  under  the  heading  Italian  Romanesque,  History  of 
Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  2. 

41.  Religious. — Charlemagne   in  773  A.  D.  had  con- 
firmed the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  by  defending  him 
against  the  Lombards.     The  Lombards  had  been  defeated 
by  Pepin,  the  father  of  Charlemagne,  and  their  territory, 
known  as  Lombardy,  had  been  turned  over  to  Pope  Stephen 
III.     In  return,  Charlemagne  was  crowned  by  Pope  Leo  III 
as  Emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.     The  successors 
of   Charlemagne    inherited   the    title  of  emperor   and  they 
evidently  intended  to  transform  the  title  into  real  authority; 
whereas,  the  later  popes  insisted  on  the  independence  of  the 
papal  states,  which  was  finally  acknowledged  by  Emperor 
Rudolf  I  of  Hapsburg. 

In  1378,  great  scandal  in  the  church  was  caused  by  a 
dispute  over  the  election  of  the  pope.  Each  of  two  rival 
candidates  claimed  to  be  elected,  and  one  established  him- 
self at  Avignon,  France,  while  the  other  maintained  his 
papal  palace  at  Rome.  This  period  is  known  in  church 
history  as  the  "Great  Schism."  The  dispute  was  ended 
in  1415  by  the  general  recognition  of  the  Roman  Pontiff, 
after  which  the  popes  assumed  a  very  important  temporal 
position  as  Italian  princes,  and  during  the  15th  century, 
they  greatly  extended  their  possessions  in  Italy.  A  great 
palace  was  erected  for  them  and  was  called  the  Vatican.  At 
the  present  day,  the  Vatican  is  probably  the  most  extensive 
palace  in  the  world,  containing  as  it  does  some  twenty 
courts  and  11,000  rooms,  halls,  and  apartments.  The  popes 
were  great  patrons  of  literature  and  the  arts  and  encouraged 
the  erection  of  palaces  and  churches,  the  decoration  of  which 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  199 

was  entrusted  to  such  painters  as  Raffael,  Michelangelo, 
and  others.  A  school  was  established  for  artists  and  arti- 
sans, who  afterwards  did  much  for  the  spread  of  the 
Renaissance  both  at  home  and  abroad. 

42.  Political  and  Historical. — As  a  central   govern- 
ment was  recognized  at  Rome,  fortified  palaces  were  not 
necessary  as  in  Florence.     Rome  was  the  center  of  the  old 
classic  traditions,  and  the  remains  of  such  structures  as  the 
Colosseum,   the   Pantheon,   and   the   Fora   gave  impetus  to 
the  revival   and   at   the   same   time    furnished    material    for 
building  purposes. 

CHARACTERISTICS 

43.  As  the  Renaissance  advanced,  it  was  inevitable  that 
the  constant  study  of  Roman  architecture  should  lead  to  a 
closer  imitation  of  classic  details  and  eventually  to  an  abso- 
lute copying  of  antique  designs.     Toward  the  close  of  the 
15th   century,   correctness   in   the   rendering   of  the   ancient 
Roman  forms  came  to  be  considered  the  chief  of  architec- 
tural virtues,  and  the  orders  became  the  principal  resource  of 
the  architect.     Externally  the  orders  were  freely  used  in  the 
decoration  of  doors  and  windows  and  of  the  court  arcades  of 
the  palaces.     Frames  around  these  openings  and  pediments 
over  them  were  extremely  elaborate,  and  cornices  and  mold- 
ings were  profiled  with  the  utmost  care,  while  the  balustrade 
was  elaborated  into  a  most  intricate  and  ornate  device,  but 
always    on    strictly    classic   lines.     This    period    started   in 
Rome  with  the  erection  of  St.  Peter's  Church  and  continued 
until  a   complete    transformation    was    effected  throughout 
the  city. 

The  facades  and  courts  of  the  buildings  were  designed  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  the  old  classic  style.  The  orders  were 
used  freely  but  without  excessive  elaboration,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  Roman  palaces  present  an  effect  of 
most  dignified  simplicity.  An  attempt  at  unity  in  design 
was  developed  later,  when  buildings  were  treated  to  appear 
as  one  story  with  pilasters  extended  the  entire  height  of  the 


200  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

front,  including  two  or  three  stories,  and  crowned  by  an 
entablature,  including  an  attic  story,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 
Superimposed  orders  were  rarely  used,  and  arched  openings 
were  sparingly  introduced,  except  in  tiers  of  arcades,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  11,  after  the  style  of  the  Colosseum. 


EXAMPLES 

44.  Bramante. — The    first    architect    of    note    in    the 
Roman    Renaissance    was    Bramante,    who    was    born    in 
1444,  the  year  that  Brunelleschi  died.     He  was  educated  as 
a  painter  and  was  probably  a  pupil  of   Alberti.     Though 
born  in  Florence,  Bramante  studied  at  Rome  and  his  first 
practice  was  in  Milan. 

45.  Raffael  was  a  nephew  of  Bramante  and  was  engaged 
on  many  buildings  in  and  around  Rome.     He  painted  many 
interiors  and  executed  the  designs  for  the  Pandolfini  Palace, 
although  it  was  not  erected  until  10  years  after  his  death. 

46.  Bramante  had  many  pupils  and  followers.     Among 
them  was  Baldassare  Peruzzi,  who  designed  many  buildings 
in  Rome.     His  work  was  prominent  for  its  finished  detail  in 
plan  and  elevation.     He  built  the  Mossimi  Palace  and  the 
Villa  Farnesia. 

Antonio  di  Sangallo,  another  pupil  of  Bramante,  erected 
the  Farnese  Palace,  Fig,  4,  which  is  considered  a  master- 
piece of  the  Roman  Renaissance. 

47.  Michelangelo,    born    in    Florence,    in    1475,    was 
educated   as    a    sculptor   and   painter.     He  executed  many 
statues  at  Florence,  and  was  called  to  Rome,  in  1505,  to 
execute  the  designs  for  a  mausoleum  for  Pope  Julius  II. 
Later,  he  executed  a  bronze  statue  of  the  pope,  which  was 
erected  at  Bologna,  and  in  1508  he  returned  to  Rome  and 
painted  the   ceiling  of  the   Sistine  Chapel  in  the  Vatican, 
a  work  that  required  many  years.     This  decoration  repre- 
sents   scenes    from    the    creation    surrounded-  by  elaborate 
architectural  settings,  all  painted  in  perspective  to  appear  in 
relief.     Late  in  life,  Michelangelo  turned  his   attention  to 


202  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

architecture  and  among  other  buildings  designed  by  him  are 
the  dome  of  St.  Peter's,  palaces  of  the  capitol,  the  mausoleum 
at  Florence,  and  the  Laurentian  Library  at  St.  Lorenzo. 

48.  Vignola. — Giacomo  Barozzio  de  Vignola  was  the 
author  of  a  work  entitled  "The  Five  Orders  of  Architecture," 
which  has  been  translated  into  nearly  every  language  and 
which,  as  a  universal  authority  on  the  Roman  orders,  did 
much  to  familiarize  other  students  with  classic  details. 

Up  to  the  time  of  Vignola,  the  revival  of  classic  art  had 
succeeded  in  banishing  every  Gothic  detail  from  Italian 
architecture,  but  the  architects  had  not  consented  to  a 
servile  imitation  of  classic  buildings.  They  were  endeavor- 
ing to  develop  a  new  style  as  pure  and  elegant  as  the 
classic,  but  on  the  whole  quite  different  from  it.  Vignola 
and  his  contemporary,  Palladio,  after  pursuing  a  long  and 
enthusiastic  study  of  the  old  classic  ruins  and  details,  arrived 
at  the  conclusion  that  the  classic  style  was  the  only  true 
style  and  that  it  could  not  be  copied  with  too  great  minute- 
ness. Consequently,  they  measured  the  details  and  propor- 
tions of  the  ancient  orders,  and  reduced  architectural  design 
to  a  problem  in  mathematics. 

In  Vignola's  book  on  the  five  orders,  not  only  did  he  fix 
the  exact  proportion  of  every  detail  and  the  profile  and 
arrangement  of  every  molding,  but  he  established  rules  for 
the  arrangement  and  proportions  of  superimposed  orders 
and  fixed  on  the  Renaissance  those  principles  which  gave  it 
a  distinctive  character.  At  the  same  time,  however,  he 
assured  its  eventual  decay,  as  the  human  mind  cannot  be 
satisfied  without  progress,  and  when  the  main  considerations 
of  design  are  fixed  with  mathematical  precision,  designers 
will  create  all  sorts  of  frivolous  details  in  the  effort  to 
produce  originality  of  effect.  According  to  the  rules  of 
Vignola,  superimposed  columns  were  to  be  used  in  a  fixed 
order  from  Doric  to  Composite,  colonnades  were  to  be 
spaced  in  certain  fixed  terms  of  the  diameter  of  the  columns, 
and  no  details  not  found  in  the  ancient  monuments  were  to 
be  included  in  a  design. 


204  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

49.  St.  Peter's  at  Rome. — Bramante,  the  first  architect 
of  St.  Peter's,  proposed  to  combine,  in  one  design,  the  great 
dome  over  the  Pantheon  with  the  vaulting  of  the  Basilica 
Maxentius  (see  Figs.  75  and  78,  History  of  Architecture  and 
Ornament,  Part  1),  and  thereby  erect  a  building  that  should 
exceed  in  size,  elaboration,  and  structural  complexity,  any 
ecclesiastical  edifice  ever  erected.     The  foundation  for  this 
great  church  was  laid  by  Pope  Julius  II,  on  the  18th  day  of 
April,  1506.     Bramante  died  7  years  later,  but  the  building 
was  continued  at  irregular  intervals,  under  different  archi- 
tects until  the  year  1546,  when  Michelangelo  was  assigned 
to  the  work  by  Pope  Paul  III.     Michelangelo  completed  the 
building  with  the  exception  of  the  dome,  which  was  finished 
after  his  death  in  1564,  by  Fontana.     Michelangelo  left  a 
plaster  model  of  the  dome,  from  which  it  was  completed 
according  to  his  design.     This  dome  is  140  feet  in  diameter 
and  is  poised  on  the  top  of  a  circular  colonnade;  it  rises  to 
a  height  of  405  feet  above  the  church  floor.     As  left  by 
Michelangelo  at  the  time  of  his  death,  St.  Peter's  was  as 
harmonious  a  design  as  existed  in  the  Renaissance  style,  but 
in  1606  the  nave  was  lengthened,   under  orders    of   Pope 
Paul  V,  and  the  proportions  were  destroyed,  as  the  dome 
became  hidden  on  close  approach,  and  the  fagade  was  taste- 
less   and   insignificant.     (See    Ffg.    12.)     The    magnificent 
atrium,   surrounded   by  the    double   colonnade,   which   was 
added  by  Bernini,  in  1667,  gives  dignity  to  the  approach,  but 
does  not  compensate  for  the  weakness  of  the  design  of  the 
main  fagade. 

50.  St.  Peter's  is  the  largest  church  in  existence.     The 
central  aisle,  nearly  600  feet  long  and  83  feet  wide,  with  its 
splendid  paneled  and  gilded  vault,  together  with  the  central 
space   under   the  majestic  dome  presents  one  of  the  most 
majestic  conceptions  of  the  Renaissance.     This  interior,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  13,  however,  is  too  gaudily  colored  for  so 
stately  a  design.     Elaborate  carvings,  brilliant  frescos,  and 
expanses   of   burnished  gold    are   more  suggestive  of  the 
interior  of  a  pagan  temple  than  of  a  Christian  basilica,  and 


206  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

reveal  the  decline  in  taste  toward  the  end  of  this  great 
period,  of  a  style  that,  borne  on  a  tidal  wave  of  popularity, 
swept  over  Europe  and  exhausted  itself  in  the  constant  effort 
to  approach  a  false  ideal.  At  the  advent  of  the  Renaissance, 
the  architects  were  compelled  to  exercise  much  ingenuity  in 
order  to  combine  the  classic  and  Gothic  forms,  but  with 
advanced  study,  their  ingenuity  declined  and  the  practice  of 
a  servile  copying  of  classic  forms  resulted. 

St.  Peter's  Church  is  noble  in  its  proportions,  majestic 
in  its  conception,  and  gorgeous  in  its  decorations,  but  at 
the  same  time  its  coloring  is  gaudy,  its  design  is  servile, 
and  its  style  is  inappropriate  as  a  monument  to  the  Chris- 
tian faith. 

51.  St.  Peter's  Cathedral  at  Rome  was  the  most  impor- 
tant building  erected  during  this  period,  and  many  architects 
were  engaged  on  the  work.  In  1506,  Bramante  made  the 
first  design,  which  presented  a  plan  in  the  form  of  a  Greek 
cross  domed  over  at  the  intersection  of  the  arms,  similar  to 
the  Byzantine  plans.  In  1513,  Sangallo  and  Raffael  were 
engaged  to  superintend  the  work,  but  a  year  later  Bramante 
died,  and  in  1520  Raffael  died,  and  in  1536  Peruzzi,  who  was 
appointed  to  succeed  Bramante,  also  died.  Before  Raffael's 
death,  a  division  of  opinion  had  arisen  as  to  the  advisability 
of  changing  the  Greek-cross  form  to  a  Latin  cross,  Raffael 
favoring  the  latter  [see  Fig.  14  (a)]. 

In  1536,  Antonio  di  Sangallo  succeeded  as  architect,  and 
presented  a  revised  plan  with  a  central  dome,  many  orders, 
and  a  lofty  campanile,  Fig.  14  (d).  Sangallo  died  in  1546, 
and  Michelangelo  was  appointed  architect.  He  rejected  the 
plans  of  Sangallo,  restored  the  design  to  the  Greek  cross, 
and  simplified  the  aisles,  thus  destroying  entirely  the  scheme 
of  Raffael  to  give  scale  to  the  interior. 

Michelangelo  completed  the  design  for  the  dome  and 
executed  a  model  of  it  (see  Fig.  15).  The  drum  of  the 
dome  was  finished  at  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1564,  and  the 
dome  itself  was  carried  out  in  accordance  with  Michelangelo's 
model  by  Giacomo  della  Porta  and  Domenico  Fontana. 


PLAN 

BY  RAPHAEL. AD.  1513. 


208  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

Vignola  was  appointed  architect  after  Michelangelo's  death, 
and  added  the  cupolas  on  each  side  of  the  dome. 

In  1605,  Carlo  Maderno  lengthened  the  nave  to  form  a 
Latin  cross  and  erected  the  present  insignificant  facade. 
Finally,  in  1624,  Bernini  erected  the  colonnade  enclosing 
the  plaza. 

52.  Church,  of    St.   John   Iiateran. — The   church  of 
St.  John    Lateran,    in    Rome   by  Galilei,  erected   in  1734, 
Fig.  3,  shows  on  its  exterior  the  application  of  the  orders 
in  excessive  proportions,  as  first  practiced  by  Palladio  at 
Vicenza.     The  design  is  a  very  powerful  one,  however,  com- 
bining, as  it  does,  a  colossal  order  with  two  smaller  orders 
in  superposed  loggias.     The  composition  is  marred  by  the 
excessive  size  of  the  statues  which  crown  it,  but,  taken  all 
together,    this   fagade   may  be   considered   as   one   of   the 
masterpieces    of    the    later    Renaissance.     The    portico    is 
33  feet  deep  and  196  feet  long,  and  the  open  loggia  above  it 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  Rome. 

53.  Roman  Palaces. — The  palaces  of  Rome  are  classed 
among  the  finest  in  Europe.     Their  design  is  not  so  heavy 
as  those  of  Florence,  nor  so  delicate  as  those  of  Venice,  but 
the  architects  of  the  Roman  Renaissance  period  have,  by 
means  of  a  diligent  study  of  the  ancient  monuments,  repro- 
duced in  the  palatial  residences  of  their  aristocrats  the  most 
imposing  features  of  the  tombs  and  temples  of  their  pagan 
ancestors. 

Roman  palaces  were  usually  of  great  size  and  were  built 
around  large  courts,  with  arcades  of  classic  model  in  two  or 
three  stories.  On  the  street  front,  the  structures  were 
crowned  with  a  rich  cornice  proportioned  to  the  height  of 
the  building,  in  the  relation  of  entablature  and  column.  The 
orders  themselves  were  used  but  rarely  on  the  exterior,  and 
effect  was  obtained  by  careful  proportioning  of  the  stories 
and  in  the  form  and  distribution  of  the  openings.  The  first 
story  was  given  up  to  suites  of  sumptuous  apartments, 
elaborate  halls,  reception  rooms,  etc.,  the  walls  and  ceilings 
of  which  were  decorated  with  magnificent  frescos  by  the 


210  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

greatest  painters  of  the  day,  and  groups  of  statuary  and 
bas-reliefs  were  disposed  in  the  courts  and  vestibules  and  in 
the  wail  niches  of  the  principal  rooms  of  these  princely 
dwellings. 

54.  Farnese  Palace. — The  finest  of  the  palaces,  the 
Farnese,  built  by  Sangallo  in  1530,  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.     It 
is  an  immense  building,  260  ft.  X  192  ft.,  whose  rectangular 
plan  and  simple  elevations  are  given  dignity  and  impres- 
siveness    by    the    careful    proportioning    and    arrangement 
of   the    window   openings    and   by  the    treatment   of   their 
details.     The  lower  story  is  very  plain,  consisting  merely  of 
a  row  of  square-headed  openings  in  a  plain  masonry  wall 
surface,  which    is  relieved  at   the   center   by  an   immense 
carriage  entrance  to  the  beautiful  court  within.     The  win- 
dows in  the  upper  stories  are  flanked  each  side  by  three- 
quarter    columns,    which    support    a    pediment    over    each 
opening,  and  the  whole  structure  is  surmounted  by  a  mag- 
nificent cornice,  designed  by  Michelangelo,  which  is  worthy 
of  its  position  on  the  finest  palace  in  Rome. 

55.  The  interior  court  of  the  Farnese  Palace,  Fig.  11,  is 
a  magnificent  enclosure  over   125  feet  square   and  is  sur- 
rounded on  four  sides  by  a  deep  colonnade,  over  which  the 
second  story  of  the  palace  extends.     The  colonnade  is  some- 
what on  the  style  of  the  Colosseum  (see  Fig.  83,  History  of 
Architecture  and  Ornament,   Part  1),  with  its  half  columns 
supporting  an  entablature,  but  the  projecting  imposts  impair 
the  composition  in  the  first  story,  as  they  have  the  appear- 
ance of  cutting  into  and  weakening  the  columns.     Like  all  the 
Renaissance  palaces,  the  court  elevations  of  the  Farnese  are 
considerably  more  elaborate  than  the  exterior  fronts,  but  the 
simple  treatment  of  the  entire  design  places  it  in  the  lead  as 
one  of  the  most  successful  buildings  in  the  Renaissance  style. 

56.  Giraud  Palace. — The  Giraud  Palace,  Fig.  16,  is 
one   of   Bramante's   later  works,   in  which  the  orders  are 
introduced  in  the  second  and  third  stories.     The  basement, 
however,  is  plain  and  severe,  somewhat  after  the  style  of 
the  Florentine  palaces. 


I  I.  T  101—19 


214  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

57.  Cancellarla    Palace. — The     Cancellaria     Palace, 
Fig.  17,  has  the  characteristic  court  surrounded  by  a  colon- 
nade, but  in  this  case  the  colonnade  is  carried  out  through 
two  stories.     The  upper  story  supports  an  attic  in  which 
pilasters  face  the  .walls  over  the  columns  below  in  super- 
imposed orders  according  to  the  rules  of  Vignola. 

58.  Palace  Caprarola. — Vignola's  greatest  work  was 
undoubtedly  the  Palace  Caprarola,  Fig.  18,  about  30  miles 
from  Rome.     The  plan  was  pentagonal  in  outline,  enclosing 
a  circular  court.     Each  of  its  five  sides  was  130  feet  long 
and  90  feet  high,  while  the  court  was  65  feet  in  diameter. 
This  pentagonal  form  of  plan  was  used  to  give  the  palace  a 
fortress-like  appearance,  as  all  citadels   at  that  time  were 
pentagons.     Above    the   terrace   on   which   it   is  built,  the 
palace  rises  in  two  grand  stories  of  orders,  the  lower  one 
being  arcaded  and  the  upper  one  including  two  stories  of 
windows.     Vignola    also    designed   many    other   important 
buildings  in  Rome. 

59.  The  Villa  Medici. — When  these  palaces  were  built 
on  the  outskirts  of  the  city,  or  beyond  the  municipal  limits 
entirely,   the    courts  were    sometimes  dispensed  with,   and 
great  care  was  given  to  the  laying  out  of  a  park  or  garden 
on  one  side  of  the  palace,  which  should  afford  a  pleasing 
outlook  from  the  principal  rooms. 

In  Fig.  19  is  shown  the  garden  front  of  the  Villa  Medici, 
erected  in  1540  by  Lippi.  The  entrance,  with  its  central 
arched  and  flanking  trabeated  openings  and  its  supporting 
columns,  is  a  typical  detail  of  the  Roman  school  of  the 
Renaissance,  which  was  much  copied  in  many  subsequent 
buildings  erected  in  other  countries.  The  walls  of  this 
facade  are  tastefully  decorated  with  numerous  bas-reliefs  of 
allegorical  subjects,  and  are  indented  with  niches  for  the 
reception  of  statues  and  busts.  The  window  openings  are 
few  and  comparatively  small,  as  they  face  the  southwest  and 
the  rays  of  the  tropical  sun  are  not  desired  within.  This 
lack  of  windows  accounts  for  the  surface  decoration  of  the 
walls  proper  and  the  consequent  originality  of  the  design. 


216  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


VENETIAN  RENAISSANCE 


INFLUENCES 

60.  Geographical. — The    importance    of    Venice    was 
always   due   to   her   geographical   position   being  especially 
advantageous  to  Oriental  trade.     This  trade  brought  wealth 
and  consequently  architectural  development. 

61.  Geological. — Venice  is  practically  built  over  the 
water  instead  of  over  the  land.    Its  palaces  and  churches  are 
erected  on  piles  driven  in  a  shallow  lagoon,  and  the  means 
of  communication  being  through  canals  instead  of  streets, 
it  presents  an  entirely  different  condition  from  any  other 
community.     The  structural  problem  beginning  at  once  with 
the  peculiarity  of  foundations  had  an  important  influence 
on  the  design  of  its  edifices. 

62.  Climatic. — The  climatic  conditions  favor  an  out- 
door life,  as  Venice  is  very  warm  in  summer,  though  tem- 
pered by  sea  breezes;  yet  it  is  sufficiently  cool  in  winter  to 
require  artificial  heating  of  interiors.     The  former  condition 
tends  to  the  picturesque  treatment  of  the  fagades,  as  they 
are  reflected  in  the  canals,  and  the  introduction  of   much 
color,  while  the  latter  renders  the  roof  treatment  more  con- 
spicuous in  chimneys  than  is  found  in  other  Italian  cities. 

63.  Religions. — Venice  was  more  independent  of  the 
pope  than    other   cities,   and   always    maintained    a    strong 
loyalty  to  the  state.     Tolerance  of  religious  forms  in  Venice 
is  evidenced  by  the  erection  of  a  Greek  church  during  the 
Renaissance  period. 

64.  Political  and  Historical. — During  the  15th  cen- 
tury, Venice  conquered  the  surrounding  country  and  appointed 
Venetian  governors,  thus  strengthening  her  republican  form 
of  government.     Many  wealthy  families  arose  to  prominence 
and   a   great  rivalry   existed   in   the    erection    of    handsome 
palaces  along  the  Grand  Canal.     These  palaces  were  not 


(a) 


217 


218  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

fortresses  as  in  Florence,  but  were  the  residences  of  prom- 
inent citizens  that  had  acquired  greath  wealth  through 
Oriental  trade  and  manufactures. 

In  1453,  Constantinople  was  taken  by  the  Turks  and  the 
Oriental  trade  was  undermined.  In  1486,  the  new  route 
from  Europe  to  India  was  discovered  by  Diaz  and  much  of 
the  Indian  trade  was  thus  diverted  to  Portugal.  As  a  result 
of  this,  Venice  was  at  war  with  the  Turks  throughout  the 
16th  century,  and  eventually  all  her  possessions,  except 
Northern  Italy,  were  taken  from  her. 


CHARACTERISTICS 

65.  The  Renaissance  movement  affected  the  architecture 
of  Venice  very  differently  from  other  Italian  cities.  The 
Venetians  had  developed  a  very  beautiful  architecture  during 
the  Gothic  period,  and  being  more  isolated  from  Rome,  they 
were  not  so  much  influenced  by  classic  traditions  as  were 
the  people  of  nearer  cities  like  Florence.  Therefore,  instead 
of  adopting  the  classic  forms  at  once,  there  was  a  period  of 
transition,  during  which  the  two  styles  were  mingled. 

The  architecture  of  Venice  was  of  a  lighter  character  than 
the  rustic  styles  of  Florence  or  the  severely  classic  styles 
of  Rome.  Columns  and  pilasters  were  used  freely,  but  the 
windows  were  arranged  in  groups  instead  of  being  evenly 
distributed  across  the  fagade.  A  favorite  grouping  was  one 
where  the  openings  were  arranged  in  the  middle  of  the  front 
with  considerable  areas  of  flanking  wall  on  each  side,  as 
in  the  lowest  stories  of  the  buildings  shown  in  Fig.  20. 
The  fagades  were  comparatively  flat,  owing  to  the  scarcity 
of  land  and  the  frontage  being  on  the  line  of  the  canal,  but 
monotony  was  avoided  by  the  grouping  of  the  windows,  the 
introduction  of  projecting  balconies,  and  the  subdivision  of 
the  stories  by  cornices  and  balconies. 

Late  in  the  period,  Venice,  like  other  cities,  followed  the 
classic  proportions  of  Vignola  very  closely  and  introduced 
little  detail  or  decoration  that  did  not  have  a  classic  model 
as  its  prototype. 


Fio.  21 


220  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


EXAMPLES 

66.  Venetian  Architects. — The  principal  architects  of 
the    Venetian    school   were    Sansovino    and  his   immediate 
successors.     Sansovino   built  the  staircase  in  the  court  of 
the  Ducal  Palace,  Fig.  23,  the  Zecca,  or  Mint,  and  the  church 
of  St.   Georgio  del  Greci.     He  commenced  the  library  of 
St.  Mark,  Fig.  21,  but  this  structure  was  finished  after  his 
death  by  one  of  his  successors. 

Sansovino  was  succeeded  by  two  rivals,  Scamozzi  and 
Palladio.  The  former  finished  the  library  of  St.  Mark  and 
erected  numerous  churches  and  palaces.  He  possessed  little 
originality,  however,  and  Palladio,  with  his  transcendent 
talent,  finally  obtained  the  lead. 

Palladio  was  an  author  as  well  as  an  architect.  He  care- 
fully measured  the  Roman  antiquities  and  published  draw- 
ings of  them  in  a  book  on  architecture,  which  did  much  to 
influence  other  European  designers.  His  designs  were 
mostly  erected  in  brick  and  stucco,  the  lower  story  being 
rusticated,  as  in  the  Florentine  examples. 

67.  Ducal  Palace. — The  great  undertaking  of  this  age 
was  the  rebuilding  of  the  court  of  the  Ducal  Palace,  Fig.  22, 
by  Antonio  Rizzo,  in  1486.     The  lower  story  is  particularly 
pleasing.     The  piers  are  octagonal  prisms,  in  the  faces  of 
which  panels  are  sunk,  thus  giving  lightness  to  the  details 
without  detracting  from  their  strength.     The  pointed  arcade 
in  the  second  story  is  not  so  pleasing,  and  shows  how  the 
lingering  traditions  still  affected  independent  Venice,  when 
Rome  had  given  herself  up  entirely  to  the  classic  revival. 
The  upper  stories  are  characteristically  Renaissance.     The 
broad  belts  of  friezes  carved  in  ornamental  sculpture  cease 
to  appear  as  copies  of  classic  forms  and  readily  proclaim 
themselves  as  ornamental  wall  spaces  between  the  stories. 
The  pilasters  flanking  the  windows  are  not  the  pilasters  of 
ancient  Rome,  but  a  Renaissance  development  that  is  ever 
appropriate  to  its  plan.     The  giant  stairway,  Fig.  23,  was 
completed  by  Sansovino,  in  1554. 


£21 


FIG.  22 


222  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

68.  Library  of  St.    Mark.— The  library  of  St.  Mark, 
Fig.  21,  commenced  by  Sansovino  in  1536,  is  undoubtedly 
the  masterpiece  of  this  architect.     It  consists  of  an  open 
arcade  in  the  Doric  order  on  the  ground  floor,  above  which 
is  an  Ionic  arcade  under  an  entablature  of  most  exagger- 
ated proportions.     This  was  necessary  in  order  to  permit  the 
frieze  .to  be  pierced  with  a  range  of  small  windows.     There 
seems  also  to  be  too  great  a  profusion  of  sculptured  orna- 
ment, but  notwithstanding  these  defects,  there  is  a  grandeur 
in  the  range  of  its  twenty-one  arches  and  the  boldness  of  its 
crowning  members  that   is    impressive.     This   structure    is 
270  feet  long  on  the  plaza  facing  the  Ducal  Palace  and  is 
45  feet  deep  on  the  end  shown  in  Fig.  21. 

69.  Vendramini    Palace. — The    Vendramini    Palace, 
Fig.  20  (a),  commenced  in  1481  by  Lombardo,  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  palaces  in  Venice.     It  is  one  of  the  earliest 
buildings  in  Italy  where  engaged  columns  are  used  to  divide 
the  fagade.     The  lines  of  its  composition  are  vigorous  and 
stately,  and  its  broad  arched  and  mullioned  windows,  sepa- 
rated by  engaged   columns,    established    a   type    of   large- 
windowed  and  vigorously  modeled  facades  that  later  archi- 
tecture developed  but  never  surpassed.     The  treatment  of 
the  arched  heads  of  the  windows  is  suggestive  of  Gothic 
influence,    although    the   mullions    and   other   columns    are 
derived  directly  from  Roman  models.     The  grouping  of  the 
windows  toward  the  center  of  the  building  and  leaving  a 
flanking  wall  mass  on  each  side,  is  a  typical  Venetian  fea- 
ture, which  is  also  traceable  in  some  of  the  Gothic  designs. 

70.  Cornaro  Palace. — The  Cornaro,  Fig.  20  (6),  com- 
menced in  1532  by  Sansovino,  is  similar  to  the  Vendramini 
Palace.     However,   the  openings  are  smaller  and  the  first 
story  is  higher,  and  is  built  of  rusticated  stonework  some- 
what after  the  Florentine  style. 

71.  Pesaro  Palace. — The   Pesaro   Palace,  Fig.  5  (a), 
designed  by  Longhena,  in  1650,  is  a  most  dignified  com- 
position,  although    there    is   no   doubt   that   the    fagade   is 
overornamented.     It   belongs    to    the    later   period   of   the 


I  L  T   303—34 


224  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

Renaissance,  when  the  variety  that  could  be  obtained  through 
a  close  imitation  of  the  classic  system  of  design  was  nearly 
exhausted  and  originality  was  sought  in  the  application  of 
ornament  in  new  and  fantastic  shapes.  But  even  allow- 
ing that  the  design  is  not  in  the  best  taste,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  it  was  the  residence  of  a  wealthy  nobleman,  and 
taken  as  a  whole,  it  is  a  singularly  picturesque  piece  of 
architecture. 

72.  Palazzo   del    Consigllo. — The    Palazzo   del   Con- 
siglio,  or  council  hall,  at  Verona,  Fig.  5  (b) ,  by  Fra  Giocondo, 
is  a  characteristic  structure  erected  about  1500.     It  consists 
of   an  open   arcade,   over  which    are  walls  of   plaster  and 
stucco  richly  decorated  in  graffito  work. 

73.  Church  of  St.  Maria  della  Salute.— The  church 
of  St.  Maria  della  Salute,  Fig.  24,  commenced  by  Longhena, 
in  1532,  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  Grand  Canal.     The 
plan  of  this  edifice  is  octagonal,  with  chapels  extending  on 
each  side.     The  central  space  is  covered  by  a  dome  standing 
'/n  a  high  drum,  which  is  connected  with  the  outer  walls  by 
buttresses  that  extend  over  the  aisles  and  thus  add  to  the 
richness  of  the  exterior  effect.     A  smaller  dome  covers  the 
chancel,  and  a  square  tower  with  a  domical  roof  adds  variety 
and  repose  to  the  structure.     The  ornament  is  elaborate  and 
presents  many  of  the  faults  that  characterize  the  latter  part 
of  the  Renaissance  style.     Architects  became  tired  of  design- 
ing fagades  that  consisted  simply  of  architectural  orders  laid 
out  with  mathematical  precision.     In  the  endeavor  to  pro- 
duce something  new,  the  classic  details  were  subjected  to  all 
sorts  of  indignities.     Columns  were   designed  with    spiral 
twistings,  capitals  were  composed  with  cupids  and  allegori- 
cal figures  supporting  the  abacus.     Large  brackets  or  con- 
soles from  the  cornice  of  the  Corinthian  order  were  intro- 
duced as  buttresses,  and  smaller  ones  as  keystones,  and  in 
the  attempt  to  express  original  ideas  with  classic  details,  all 
care  for  the  propriety  of  these  details  was  overlooked.    This 
was  termed   the    Rococo    period    of    the    Renaissance    and 
marked  the  decline  in  all  countries  where  the  style  developed. 


225 


FIG.  24 


226  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


ANALYTICAL,    STUDY 


PLANS 

74.  The  plans  (see  Fig.  2)  in  the  Florentine  school  were 
extremely    simple,    consisting  of   a  number  of  apartments 
grouped    around    an    interior    court.     Stairs    were    closed 
between  walls  and  were  usually  vaulted  over.     In  Rome,  the 
plans  were  more  varied  and  on  a  grander  scale,  and  elliptical 
and  circular  stairways  supported  on  columns  are  character- 
istic.    In  Venice,  the  canals  required  that  the  plans  present 
a  straight  front.     Stairways  well  in  the  central  part  usually 
opened  on  a  court.  

WALLS 

75.  In  Florence,  rusticated  walls  with  a  dominant  pro- 
jecting  cornice  were  characteristic.     No  exterior  pilasters 
or  columns  were  used,  except  as  details  of  window  treat- 
ment.    In  Rome,  pilasters,  two  or  more  stories  in  height, 
supported  a  cornice  that  crowned  the  walls,  and  the  window 
openings  were  treated  as  simple  piercings  through  the  wall 
curtain.     Early  in  the  style,  however,  the  walls  were  left 
plain,    with    rustications    at   the    angles    and    pilasters    or 
columns  in  the  first  story  only.     In  Venice,  columns  were 
used  freely  in  each  story,  with  an  entablature  for  each,  and 
little    wall    space    was    exposed.     The    general    treatment 
approached    the    Roman    imperial    style    as   exemplified   in 
the  Colosseum.  

ROOFS 

76.  Over   galleries    and    passages    semicircular   vaults 
were   used   in   Florence,  and  these  were   richly  decorated. 
In  church  work,  the  dome  was  introduced  over  the  cross- 
ing and  the  nave  vault  was  coffered,  as  in  the  Pantheon 
at  Rome.     Tiles  were  used  on  the  exterior  and  were  some- 
times visible,  but  usually  the  pitch  was  too  flat  for  them  to 
show.     In    Rome,  coffered   vaults    were    used   for   interior 
effect,  but  the  exterior  roofs  were  rarely  visible.     Domes 


UlJJJUUUblJLPJUlJUULIUl 


(f\ 


228  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

mounted  on  a  high  drum  and  crowned  with  a  lantern  became 
characteristic  of  all  churches  of  the  period.  In  Venice,  a 
balustrade  was  carried  above  the  upper  cornice  and  the  roof 
behind  it  was  given  only  sufficient  pitch  to  shed  the  rain. 


COLUMNS 

77.  In  Florentine  Renaissance,  columns  were  used  only 
for  arcaded  passages  or  for  courts,  and  not  as  elements  of 
wall  treatment,  as  in  the  Vecchio  Palace,  Fig.  6.     In  Rome, 
pilasters  were  used  on  a  gigantic  scale  across  the  front  of 
the  buildings,  and  all  the  details  are  designed  in  proportion 
to  these  pilasters  as  an  order,  and  not  in  proportion  to  the 
scale  of  the  building  itself,  as  in  St.  John  Lateran,  Fig.  3. 
In  Venice,  columns  were  used  in  arcades,  as  in  the  Colos- 
seum, and  the  entablature  was  broken  out  over  them  and 
then  back  along  the  wall  space  between,  as  in  the  Pesaro 
Palace,  Fig.  5  (a).  

OPENINGS 

78.  Windows  in  Florence  were  small  and  widely  spaced. 
The   early  examples  usually  possessed  semicircular  heads 
and  were  divided  by  a  columnar  mullion  carrying  two  minor 
semicircles   with   a  complete  circle  between,   as  shown  in 
Fig.  25  (a),  which  is  from  the  Strozzi  Palace,  thus  establish- 
ing a  traceried  head.     Later,  after  the  Roman  school,  the 
windows  were  straight-topped  with  a  cornice  as  in  (b)  from 
the  Gondi  Palace  or  they  were  flanked  by  columns  and  sur- 
mounted with  entablatures  and  pediments,  as  in  (c),  from 
the    Pandolfini  Palace.     In  Rome,  the  openings  are  either 
flanked  by  columns  carrying  a  pediment  or  entablature  for 
a  window  head,  as  in  (d)  and  (<?),  from  the  Farnese  Palace, 
or  they  are  treated  simply  as  wall  piercings  between  the 
great  pilasters  that  extend  from  basement  to  cornice.     In 
Venice,   the  windows  are  tall,  as  in  (/),  and  are  set  close 
together,  the  fagade  of  a  building  being  frequently  treated 
as  a  series  of  voids  and  solids,  through  the  adoption  of  the 
arcade  and  colonnade,  similar  to  the  Colosseum  at  Rome. 


r^^-sltoflffw^  .J£§-? •% 

S^>/7-Jl'!  SEN  AT  C«NS  ANDRE  H?*-1  ^S^" 

^M'-W  !AE  DF:  PORPATRNAE  IWSi- 

^^U^sLIiiffi 


229 


230  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


MOLDINGS 

79.  In  Florence,  the  moldings  are  few  and  simple.  In 
Rome,  the  details  of  the  classic  style  were  followed  as  closely 
as  possible,  but  on  a  colossal  scale.  In  Venice,  the  classic 
was  followed,  but  the  scale  was  smaller  and  the  details 
were  worked  out  with  more  delicacy. 


ORNAMENT 

80.  Fresco  painting  of  the  walls  and  ceilings  was  prac- 
ticed in  all  three  schools,  as  was  also  sculptured  ornament 
in  the  friezes.     The  general  decoration  is  usually  grouped  in 
masses  in  the  Florentine  style,  to  contrast  with  large  areas 
of  plain  wall  surface.     On  the  exterior,  about  all  the  carved 
work  observable  are  great  armoried  shields  on  the  angles  of 
the  palaces,  as  in  Fig.  1.     In  contrast  to  this,  the  Venetian 
style  introduces  decoration  all  over  the  front.     Every  span- 
drel has  its  appropriate   sculpture  in  high  relief   and  thus 
adds  materially  to  the  characteristic  of  the  style. 

81.  On  the  interiors,  the  doorways  were  treated  similarly 
to  the  window  openings,  and  they  were  frequently  carved 
with  elaborate  arabesques  and  classic  ornament,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  26.     The  example  shown  in  (a)  was  executed  in  white 
marble,  and  consisted  of  two  paneled  pilasters  for  the  side 
trim  and  an  elaborate  entablature  for  the  lintel,  or  cap.     The 
frieze  was  carved  in  the  Greek  honeysuckle  and  anthemion, 
and  over  the  corona  was  turned  a  semicircular  pediment. 
The  example  shown  in  (b)  is  similar,  except  that  the  side 
trim  and  lintel  consist  of  moldings  only,  and  the  tympanum 
under  the  semicircular  pediment  is  of  black  marble.     In  (c), 
which  is  an  example  from  Genoa,  a  pedestal  is  introduced 
under  the  pilasters  and  the  pediment  is  omitted,  while  at  (d), 
also  from  Genoa,  the  capital  is  introduced  below  the  door 
head — not  a  pleasing  arrangement. 

82.  All  pilaster  caps  shown  in  Fig.  27  are  based  on  the 
Corinthian  order,  but  none  of  them  conform  to  it  exactly. 


c 

I 


FTQ   97 


232  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

The  inti  eduction  of  foliated  heads  and  human  figures  is 
characteristic  of  the  Renaissance  and  was  later  carried  to 
extremes  in  France. 

The  arabesques  that  were  carved  in  panels  on  the  shafts 
of  the  pilasters,  instead  of  the  flutings  of  the  classic  models, 
were  intricate  and  symmetrical,  and  were  usually  duplicated 
on  opposite  sides  of  a  center  line,  as  shown  in  Figs.  28 
and  30.  Fluted  shafts  were  also  used  and  the  flutings  were 
sometimes  filled  one-third  the  way  up  from  the  base  with 
carved  reeds  or  rope-like  forms. 

Bosses,  as  shown  in  Fig.  29  (a),  (b}t  and  (c}t  were  intro- 
duced into  ceiling  decoration,  and  elaborate  iron  grilles,  as 
shown  in  (d)  and  (e),  were  placed  in  the  semicircular  door 
heads. 

The  use  of  color  in  the  ornamentation  of  the  Italian  Ren- 
naissance  was  lavish  and  the  designs  were  most  elaborate 
and  excellent  in  execution.  It  was  an  age  when  artists  were 
the  architects  and  the  finest  painters  and  sculptors  of  the 
day  were  employed  on  the  decorations.  The  subjects 
adopted  were  allegorical  or  religious,  and  were  treated  with 
conventional  symmetry,  while  the  rendering,  at  times,  was 
decidedly  naturalistic.  In  Fig.  30  at  (a)  is  shown  a  panel 
from  one  of  the  pilasters  in  the  Vatican.  It  is  symmetrically 
disposed  on  each  side  of  a  vertical  center  line  and  made  up 
of  subjects  borrowed  from  mythological  conceptions,  com- 
bined in  a  conventional  treatment  similar  to  the  Pompeian 
paintings.  The  central  stem  consists  of  an  attenuated  vase 
from  which  tendril-like  scrolls  branch,  while  impossible 
grotesque  animals  rear  themselves  on  each  side.  These 
suggest  ideas  borrowed  from  the  mythology  of  the  Greeks, 
as  do  also  the  naturally  rendered,  and  conventionally  posed, 
cupids  above.  In  mythology  we  have  the  centaur  and  the 
sphinx,  each  symbolic  of  the  intellect  of  man  and  the 
strength  of  the  beast;  the  griffin  with  the  head  and  wings 
of  a  bird,  and  the  body  of  a  lion;  the  dragon  with  the  head 
of  a  beast,  the  body  of  a  reptile,  and  the  wings  of  a  bat; 
and  numerous  other  combinations  that  establish  a  precedent 
for  these  forms  in  the  Renaissance  paintings. 


233 


FIG.  28 


(fir) 


FIG.  29 


234 


f 


FIG.  30 


(d) 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  235 

The  forms  are  shaded  to  give  "roundness"  to  the  parts — a 
treatment  antagonistic  to  the  highest  ideals  of  surface 
decoration — but  this  treatment  is  found  in  many  Renais- 
sance decorations  and  is  characteristic  of  the  style. 

In  Fig.  30  (b)  is  shown  another  panel  where  two  male 
figures,  naturalistically  rendered,  support  a  tablet  and  super- 
imposed decorative  forms.  Analyzing  the  design  one  finds 
the  male  figures  suggestive  of  Hercules  or  Atlas,  the  tablet 
appears  to  be  modeled  after  a  Roman  altar,  and  the  griffins, 
acanthus  scrolls,  and  Greek  vase  all  appear  to  be  of  Pom- 
peian  origin.  An  unlimited  variety  of  design  can  thus  be 
invented  and  when  carried  out  in  the  varied  possibilities  of 
color  scheme,  the  painted  ornament  of  the  Renaissance  pre- 
sents a  unique  and  interesting  study.  Much  of  it  is  false, 
however;  moldings,  cornices,  consoles,  and  brackets  are 
painted  on  the  walls  instead  of  worked  in  relief  and  when 
viewed  from  the  wrong  point  are  entirely  out  of  perspective. 


REVIEW    EXERCISES 

1.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  Renaissance? 

2.  Describe  briefly  the  conditions  and   influences  that  led   to  the 
Renaissance  movement. 

3.  What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  Renaissance  architecture? 

4.  What  are  the  contrasting  characteristics    of    Renaissance  and 
Gothic  architecture? 

5.  (a)    Into  what    three    schools,   or   styles,   of    design    is  Italian 
Renaissance    architecture    divided?     (b)    What    are    the    contrasting 
characteristics  of  each?     (c)   Name  three  important  buildings  in  each 
style  and  state  by  whom  they  were  designed. 

6.  (a)  What  was  the  Rococo  period?     (b)  What  was  the  character 
of  its  ornament? 

7.  Who  was  (a)  Michelangelo?     (b)  Vignola? 

8.  (a)  What  is  the  Vatican?     (b)  When  was  it  erected? 

9.  On  a  sheet  of  paper  9  in.  X  12  in.  make  a  drawing  of  an  Italian 
Renaissance  doorway  (5  ft.  wide  and  10  ft.  high)  consisting  of  two 
pilasters   supporting  an  entablature,  the  pilasters  to  be  paneled  and 
carved    in  Arabesque    designs    with    characteristic    capitals   as   illus- 
trated.    The  drawings  are  to  be  similar  to,  but  not  copies  of,  Fig.  27 
(a)>  (b)>  (<•')>  and  (d),  and  on  a  scale  of  1  inch  =  1  foot. 


236  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


FRENCH   RENAISSANCE 

(1515  TO  1800) 


INFLUENCES 

83.  Geographical. — France  had  by  this  time  assumed 
the    boundaries    she    was    destined  "to    maintain   practically 
down  to  the  present  day.     Under  Louis  XIV  and  Napoleon, 
she  acquired  more  territory,  but  soon  lost  it,  so  it  need  not  be 
taken  into  consideration.     (See  also  influences  under  French 
Romanesque,  History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  2.) 

84.  Geological   and   Climatic. — The    geological    and 
climatic  influences  are  the  same  as  those  given  under  French 
Romanesque,  History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  2. 

85.  Religious. — Although   there   was   high    feeling    in 
France    between    the    Catholics    and    the    Reformers,    the 
government  was  in  the  hands  of  the  former  and  the  Protes- 
tants had  very  little  direct  influence.     Moreover,  as  sufficient 
churches  had  been  built  during  the  medieval  period,  there 
was  little  necessity  for  many  others,  and  none  of  importance 
were  erected  until  the  18th  century.     Thus  the  style  had 
little  influence  on  church  architecture. 

86.  Political     and     Historical.— In     1494,     Charles 
VIII  of  France  invaded  Italy;  in  1508,  Louis  XII  joined  with 
Florence  in  an  alliance  against  Venice;  and  from   1522  to 
1542,  Francis   I  was  at  war  with   Italy,   and    although  the 
French    were    defeated    in    all  these    conflicts,    they    were 
brought  into  contact  with  the  superior  civilization  of  Italy 
and  were  drawn  into  the  Renaissance  movement. 

When  the  kings,  Charles,  Louis,  and  Francis,  returned 
from  their  campaigns  in  Italy,  they  brought  with  them 
Italian  artists  and  workmen,  among  whom  were  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  Vignola,  and,  later  on,  Bernini.  Francis  I  was  an 
ardent  patron  of  the  arts  and  literature  and  it  is  to  him 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  237 

that  France  owes  her  picturesque  chateaux  along  the  river 
Loire.  He  reigned  from  1515  to  1547  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Henry  II.  Henry  married  Catharine  de  Medici, 
one  of  the  great  Medici  family  of  Italy,  and  through  this 
marriage  and  that  of  one  of  her  later  kings,  France  was 
under  Italian  influence  for  nearly  100  years.  Henry  was 
succeeded  in  1559  by  his  son  Francis  II  who  died  in  1560, 
and  was  followed  by  his  brothers  Charles  IX  (1560  to  1574) 
and  Henry  III  (1574  to  1589),  but  Catharine  dominated  the 
policy  of  her  sons.  She  was  an  ardent  Catholic  and  perse- 
cuted the  Huguenots  unmercifully.  Under  Charles  IX,  in 
1572,  over  20,000  Huguenots  were  murdered  throughout 
France  on  the  eve  of  St.  Bartholomew's  day.  This  is 
known  in  history  as  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 
Under  Henry  III,  the  influence  of  the  Catholic  party  became 
so  intolerable  that  the  king  in  an  endeavor  to  free  himself 
from  its  power,  had  the  Duke  de  Guise  and  the  Cardinal  de 
Lorraine,  leaders  of  the  party,  murdered  in  his  private 
apartments  of  the  chateau  de  Blois,  as  a  result  of  which 
Henry  himself  was  treacherously  murdered  by  a  Catholic 
fanatic  in  1589.  Henry  IV,  a  Protestant,  then  came  to  the 
throne  and  promulgated  in  1598  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  by 
which  the  Huguenots  were  given  freedom  of  worship 
without  persecution.  But  Henry  turned  Catholic,  married 
Marie  de  Medici,  another  descendent  of  the  famous  Italian 
family,  and  at  his  death  troubles  broke  out  anew.  Louis 
XIII  (1610  to  1643)  was  but  a  boy  when  he  ascended  the 
throne,  and  France  was  governed  by  Marie  de  Medici  and 
the  Prime  Minister  Richelieu,  an  Italian  prelate.  Under 
Louis  XIV  (1643  to  1715).  France  became  the  leading 
country  of  Europe  and  many  grand  building  operations 
were  undertaken. 

87.  Many  fine  public  monuments  were  erected  by  the 
government;  the  palaces  were  enlarged;  much  pomp  and 
display  was  introduced  into  all  royal  ceremonies,  and  every- 
where was  evidenced  the  pride  and  ambition  of  the  nation. 
In  1685,  the  king  revoked  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  and  the 


238  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

freedom  that  had  been  enjoyed  by  the  Huguenots  for 
87  years  was  withdrawn.  Persecutions  immediately  began, 
and  as  a  result  thousands  of  the  most  industrious  and  intel- 
ligent of  the  citizens  of  France  fled  to  England  and  other 
Protestant  countries.  Louis  XV  reigned  from  1717  to 
1774.  He  was  a  dissolute  monarch,  who  wasted  the  public 
revenues  in  all  sorts  of  extravagances  that  further  disgusted 
the  people.  With  Louis  XVI  (1774  to  1793),  a  reaction  set 
in  and  under  the  influence  of  the  simple  taste  of  Queen 
Marie  Antoinette,  who  realized  that  the  impoverished  con- 
dition of  the  country  could  not  stand  the  wasteful  extrava- 
gance that  had  characterized  the  previous  reigns,  and  the 
architecture  of  the  period  reflects  this  influence.  But  the 
reaction  came  too  late.  The  revolution  broke  out  and  the 
enraged  populace  endeavored  to  exterminate  royalty  by 
putting  all  the  nobility  to  death.  Louis  XVI  and  Marie 
Antoinette  were  beheaded. 

During  the  revolution  no  building  operations  were 
attempted,  religion  was  abolished,  and  a  reign  of  terror 
and  mob  violence  ensued.  Finally,  in  1795,  a  new  form  of 
government  was  established  called  the  "Directory,"  under 
which  an  army  of  200,000  men  was  put  into  the  field  in 
command  of  General  Napoleon,  and  the  foreign  powers  that 
were  in  sympathy  with  the  martyred  king  were  defeated. 
But  the  Directory  was  not  so  successful  in  ruling  at  home. 
The  royalists  were  constantly  intriguing  to  regain  power 
and  the  form  of  government  became  unpopular.  Finally, 
in  1799,  Napoleon  overthrew  the  Directory  and  seized  the 
reins  of  government  himself — first  as  consul  until  1804,  and 
then  as  Emperor  until  1815. 

During  this  period  architecture  and  decorations  eliminated 
every  detail  that  would  remind  the  country  of  its  late  royal 
oppressors.  Architects  and  designers  searched  classic  history 
to  find  a  style  suitable  to  their  new  conditions.  Roman  details 
were  abolished,  but  the  simple  lines  of  the  Greek  style  and 
the  delicate-colored  arabesques  of  the  Pompeian  villas  inspired 
the  artists  to  new  endeavors,  and  the  Empire  period  of  French 
architecture  is  characterized  by  these  influences. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  239 


CHARACTERISTICS 

88.  French    Renaissance    architecture    may   be  divided 
into  three  periods:  the  Early  Renaissance,  or  16th  Cen- 
tury (1461  to  1589),  comprising  the  reigns  from  Louis  XI, 
to  Henry  III;  the  Classic  period,  or  17th  Century  (1589 
to  1715)  .including  the  reigns  from  Henry  IV,  to  Louis  XIV; 
and  the  Rococo   period,  or  18th  Century  (1715  to  1793), 
under  the  reigns  of  Louis  XV  and  Louis  XVI. 

The  first  period  was  transitional  from  the  Gothic,  but  the 
second  was  marked  by  strong  classical  tendencies.  The 
Rococo  period  was  the  decline,  when  ideas  seem  to  have  been 
exhausted,  and  meaningless  detail,  as  in  Italy,  took  the  place 
of  dignified  and  suitable  ornament. 

89.  In   Italy,   the   return  to  classic  forms  was    almost 
immediate.     The  principal  buildings  were  the  palaces  erected 
in  the  large  cities,  for  the  nobility,  wealthy  families,  and  the 
popes.     In  France,  the  principal  structures  were  the  chateaux 
erected  as  country  residences  for  the  king  and  his  court. 

The  narrow  streets  of  Florence,  the  straight  waterways  of 
Venice,  and  the  public  squares  of  Rome,  necessitated  a 
severely  classical  disposition,  while  the  open-country  sur- 
roundings, where  the  chateaux  were  erected,  demanded  the 
more  picturesque  treatment  that  could  be  attained  through 
the  Gothic  school.  The  proximity  of  Rome  rendered  the 
details  of  Italian  Renaissance  almost  servile  in  their  classic 
purity,  while  in  France,  the  detail  was  used  freely  and  was 
altered  whenever  necessary  to  suit  the  Gothic  construction. 

The  palaces  of  Italy  usually  presented  only  one  front,  while 
the  chateaux  of  France  were  to  be  seen  from  four  sides,  and 
thus  demanded  a  picturesque  grouping  from  every  point 
of  view.  The  Italian  villas  are  symmetrical,  classic  designs, 
according  to  the  rules  of  the  orders;  the  French  chateaux, 
irregular  Gothic  castles  with  a  veneer  of  Renaissance. 


ILT  303—35 


240  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §5] 


EXAMPLES 

90.  Chateaux. — The  most  interesting  monuments  of 
the  Early  French  Renaissance  are  the  chdteaux.     These  con- 
stituted the  country  residences  of  the  kings  and  their  royal 
relatives.     The  chateaux  are  somewhat  similar  in  character 
to  the  villas  of  Italy,  but  were  situated  farther  away  from 
the  cities  and  were  used  more  as  rural  retreats  than  were 
the    Italian   villas.     A  characteristic  that  distinguishes  the 
French  from  the   Italian   Renaissance    is    that   the  earliest 
royal  residences  were  in  the  form  of  a  feudal  castle;  and 
when  the  invention   of  gunpowder   rendered  the   castellar 
system    of   defense  ineffectual,   these  residences  began  to 
assume  a  less  forbidding  and  a  more  hospitable  appearance. 

Large  mullioned  windows  flanked  by  classic  pilasters 
pierced  the  outer  walls,  while  conical  and  high-peaked  roofs 
covered  the  towers  and  main  buildings.  Richly  ornamented 
dormer-windows  and  pilastered  chimneys  broke  the  roof 
slopes,  while  the  buttresses  and  vaulting  of  the  Gothic  sys- 
tem were  still  retained.  Thus,  the  honest,  straightforward 
system  of  castellar  construction  is  found  emerging  from  its 
crudeness  and  bedecking  itself  with  the  refinements  and  friv- 
olities of  the  approaching  Renaissance.  Along  the  river 
Loire  are  a  number  of  these  chateaux,  many  of  which  were 
erected  or  altered  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XII,  while 
others  were  remodeled  by  his  successor,  Francis  I.  The 
chateaux  along  the  valley  of  the  Loire  therefore  present 
most  excellent  monuments  from  which  to  study  the  French 
Renaissance  throughout  its  entire  development. 

91.  Chateau   de   Blois. — The   largest,    and   in    some 
respects  the  most  important,  of  these  country  residences  of 
royalty  is  the  chateau  at  Blois,  a  plan  of  which  is  shown 
in  Fig.  31.     In  this  structure,  as  it  exists  at  the  present  day, 
are  brought  together  the  expressions  characteristic  of  each 
successive  period  of  the  French  Renaissance. 

The  plan  of  the  chateau  consists  of  three  wings  so  dis- 
posed as  to  enclose  a  court  of  honor  in  the  form  of  a 


,\ 


Oi£>Tbwr 


PLAN  OF 

CHATEAU  Dt  BLOI5 


© 


^^      M,AN  OF      ^ 

CHATEAU  CHAMBORD 


241 


FIG.  31 


242  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

distorted  quadrangle,  this  irregularity  being  a  most  con- 
spicuous and  characteristic  bequest  that  was  left  to  the  new 
structure  by  the  old  medieval  castle  on  whose  lines  the 
present  edifice  is  erected.  The  northeast  side  was  built  by 
Louis  XII  toward  the  end  of  the  15th  century;  the  northwest 
side  was  completed  by  Francis  I  in  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century;  and  the  southwest  side  is  the  work  of  Gaston  of 
Orleans  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century. 

92.  Having  discussed  the  characteristics  of  the  wing  of 
Louis  XII  in  History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  3, 
the  wing  of  Francis  I,  on  the  northwest  side  of  the  court, 
Fig.  32,  will  be  considered.     This  part  was  erected  only 
50  years  after  the  wing  of  Louis  XII  was  completed,  but 
the  difference  in  style  is  manifest  even  to  the  most  casual 
observer.     The  artists  of  the  16th  century,  hurried  along 
by  the  swift  current  of  those  50  years  of  wonderful  intel- 
lectual regeneration,  seemed  to  understand  even  better  than 
their  successors  that  the  Romans  had  not  used  the  orders  as 
elements  of  construction,  as  the  Greeks  did,  but  as  decorative 
details  having  no  essential  relation  to  the  construction  what- 
ever.   They  seemed  to  know  by  instinct  that  there  was  no  law, 
moral  or  artistic,  that  should  prevent  them  from  taking  those 
Roman  orders  and  details  and  using  them  in  any  way  they 
chose,  structural  or  nonstructural,  so  long  as  their  use  suited 
the  purpose  to  which  they  were  applied.    Thus,  a  study  of  this 
period  of  architecture  shows  that  the  French  builders  accepted 
not  the  conventional  restrictions  of  the  classic  formulas,  but 
their  essential  spirit  as  an  organized  scheme  of  ornament. 

93.  The  wing  of  Francis  I,  as  it  faces  on  the  court, 
shows  that  the  lessons  in  classic  architecture  given  by  the 
great  Italian  masters,   who  were   entertained  at  the  court 
like  princes,  were  accepted  by  the   French  architects  with 
interest  and  respect  for  their  historic  value,  but  were  not 
learned  by  rote  nor  considered  as  laws  on  which  all  archi- 
tectural designs  must  be  rigidly  carried  out. 

On  the  ground  floor,  the  windows  of  this  wing  are  not 
arranged  to  coincide  with  those  of  the  floor  above,   thus 


244  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

introducing  at  once  that  old  feeling  of  Gothic  contempt  for 
absolute  symmetry.  The  pilasters  on  each  side  of  the  base- 
ment windows  support  a  string-course  that  establishes  a  line 
of  demarcation  between  the  basement  order  and  the  more 
important  series  of  pilasters  in  the  two  upper  stories.  All 
the  pilasters  are  irregularly  spaced  so  as  to  have  suitable 
relations  with  the  windows,  as  the  builders  understood  that 
the  details  as  used  by  the  Romans  were  decorative  in  their 
character  and  not  structural. 

Between  the  two  principal  stories  there  is  a  broad  string- 
course, or  entablature,  that  divides  the  pilasters  into  two 
orders,  one  superimposed  over  the  other.  A  great  cornice 
surmounted  by  an  elaborate  balustrade  crowns  the  entire 
wall.  The  coarse  corbels  that  supported  the  Gothic  parapet 
are  replaced  by  elegant  modillions  borrowed  from  the  Corin- 
thian order,  and  between  them  are  carved  a  series  of  delicate 
shells  in  place  of  the  machicolations  through  which  feudal 
ancestors  poured  deadly  missiles  and  boiling  oil  on  the 
unwelcome  visitors  below.  The  balustrade  above  the 
cornice  is  a  most  intricate  design,  in  which  the  letters  F 
and  C  are  interwoven  as  initials  of  Francis  and  Claude,  the 
king  and  queen. 

94.  The  great  octagonal  staircase  on  this  fagade  is  a 
unique  detail  in  architectural  design  and  a  masterpiece  of 
16th  century  architecture.  It  shows  clearly  the  audacious 
independence  of  the  French  architects  of  the  period,  for  it  is 
entirely  independent  of  the  wall  surface  from  which  it  pro- 
trudes, is  unsymmetrically  placed  in  the  length  of  the  wall, 
and  consists  of  four  great  free-standing,  Gothic-like  buttresses 
that  are  crowned  with  capitals  of  a  composite  character. 
These  buttresses,  whose  axial  lines  radiate  from  a  common 
central  point,  support  the  continuation  of  the  cornice  from 
the  main  wall,  and  this  continuation  of  cornice  is  the  only 
detail  that  ties  the  stair  tower  to  the  main  building. 

In  the  lower  part  of  each  buttress  is  sunk  a  niche  that 
is  beautifully  molded  and  canopied  in  the  most  elaborate 
traceries  of  Gothic  imagination,  but  executed  in  the  terms 


246  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

of  the  dawning  Renaissance.  Horizontal  moldings  divide 
the  buttresses  at  the  floor  levels,  but  with  these  the  horizon- 
tal elements  cease.  Every  other  detail  inclines  with  the 
stairs  as  they  ascend,  and  richly  carved  balconies  extend 
from  pier  to  pier.  The  balustrades  of  the  balconies  are 
divided  into  panels  and  contain  the  crowned  F  or  the 
crowned  salamander,  emblematic  of  Francis  I. 

Comparing  this  wing  with  that  of  Louis  XII,  it  is  difficult  to 
realize  that  a  period  of  only  50  years  could  effect  this  change 
in  style.  The  new  work  is  fresh,  cohesive,  and  architec- 
turally grammatical,  and  seems  to  possess  none  of  the 
weaknesses  resulting  from  timidity  in  the  use  of  a  new 
style, 

95.  The  exterior  fagade  of  the  wing,  as  shown  in  Fig.  33, 
is  merely  a  facing  on  the  structure  of  the  loth  century,  as 
the  whole  composition  grew  out  of  the  necessity  of  establish- 
ing communication  between  the  tower  of  Moulin  and  the 
buildings  on  the  southwest  end  of  the  court.     A  series  of 
arches  in  two  stones,  separated  by  piers  and  engaged  col- 
umns, were  carried  around  the  tower,  and  the  circular  shafts 
were  carried  to  the  cornice,  after  the  Romanesque  manner. 
At  a  vlater  period,  these  orders  were  carried  for  six  bays 
toward  the  north,  with  elliptical  arches  instead  of  semicir- 
cular ones,  and  with  pilasters  to  separate  them  instead  of 
columns.     Still  later,  six  more  bays  were  added,  and  thus 
the  entire  facade  was  completed. 

The  roof  is  supported  on  free-standing  columns,  poised 
above  the  pilasters  like  an  Italian  loggia,  or  balcony,  con- 
necting the  top-story  apartments.  A  two-story  dormer 
breaks  the  continuity  of  this  roof  arcade  with  Gothic  inde- 
pendence of  symmetry,  being  just  out  of  center.  In  fact,  the 
great  charm  of  this  entire  facade  lies  in  the  disregard  of  the 
absolute  symmetry  and  duplication  that  was  being  followed 
in  Italy  and  later  was  to  characterize  the  French  style  also. 

96.  Chftteau  Chenonceau. — The  little  chateau  of 
Chenonceau,  Fig.  34,  is  of  about  the  same  date  as  the  wing 
of  Francis  I  at  Blois.     It  was  commenced  about  1515  on 


247 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  249 

the  site  of  an  old  mill,  after  designs  made  by  Pierre  Nepveu. 
The  mill  foundations  being  in  the  river,  the  chateau  extends 
partly  over  the  water,  and  its  base  lines  were  necessarily 
somewhat  sharp  and  angular.  The  chateau  itself,  however, 
broke  out  from  these  foundations  in  true  Gothic  fashion  into 
round  towers  at  the  angles,  which  were  roofed  over  with 
conical  turrets  having  steep  hip  roofs  between.  On  the 
entrance  fagade,  the  roof  line  was  broken  by  three  dormers 
similar  to  those  on  the  Francis  I  wing  at  Blois,  and  although 
these  are  arranged  symmetrically  over  the  windows  in  the 
fagade  below,  and  the  details  of  the  front  are  symmetrically 
disposed  about  the  center,  the  whole  composition  is  more 
Gothic  in  feeling  than  Renaissance. 

97.  Chateau  Azay-le-Rideau. — The  chateau  of  Azay- 
le-Rideau,  Fig.  35,  was  begun  in  1520,  five  years  later  than 
Chenonceau  and  a  few  years  before  the  completion  of  the 
Francis  I  wing  at  Blois.     It  presents  no  single  feature  that 
can  compare  with  the  octagonal  staircase  at  Blois,  nor  is  its 
situation  so  romantic  as  Chenonceau,  but  in  refinement  of 
detail,  harmony  of  arrangement,  and  simplicity  of  outline, 
it  is  equal  to  any  of  the  chateaux  of  Touraine.     The  plan  is 
L-shaped,  each  angle  of  which  is  enclosed  by  a  tower  crowned 
with  the  characteristic  conical  roof.     The  towers  are  battle- 
mented,  as  is  also  the  curtain  wall  between  them  in  some 
places,    and    even   the    loopholes   between   the   embrasures 
proclaim  the   feudal  origin  of  many  of  the  details  of  the 
French  Renaissance.     Azay-le-Rideau,   therefore,   is  essen- 
tially Gothic  in  its  general  conception,  but  the  wide,  carved 
window  openings  flanked  with  pilasters,  the  fanciful  pedi- 
ments crowning  them,  and  the  horizontal  bands  subdividing 
the    fagade,    all   point    to    classic   influences    and   incipient 
Renaissance.     The  richest  ornamentation  is  to  be  found  on 
the  dormers,  which  resemble  those  at  Blois. 

98.  Chateau  Chambord. — The  chateau  of  Chambord, 
Fig.  36,  was  erected  by   Francis  I,  with  the  intention  of 
making  it  the  most  magnificent  in  France.     The  location  is 
unromantic  at  the  present  time,  as  the  timber  has  all  been 


251 


FIG.  37 


252  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

cut  and  the  chateau  left  alone  on  a  flat,  sandy  plain. 
Being  at  a  considerable  distance  from  any  supply  of  building 
material,  this  chateau  was  a  very  expensive  palace  to  build. 
However,  time  and  expense  were  nothing  to  a  monarch  of 
the  temperament  of  Francis  I.  The  suite  of  Francis  I  con- 
sisted of  about  1,800  people,  and  as  it  was  the  whim  of  the 
monarch  to  wander  constantly  from  chateau  to  chateau,  the 
housing  of  this  tremendous  retinue  was  a  problem  of  no 
small  consideration.  Chambord  was  therefore  built  for  their 
accommodation,  as  they  could  not  obtain  comfort  elsewhere. 

Chambord  had  440  rooms,  and  enough  stables  to  accom- 
modate over  a  thousand  horses  [see  plan,  Fig.  31  (£)]. 
Originally,  it  was  situated  in  the  center  of  a  wooded 
park,  the  enclosing  wall  of  which  was  21  miles  in  circum- 
ference. The  plan  of  the  chateau  was"  a  rectangle,  with  a 
tower  at  each  corner;  the  donjon  in  the  center  of  the  main 
fagade  is  a  relic  of  feudal  planning. 

The  angles  of  the  plan  are  enclosed  by  immense  round 
towers  and  the  main  fagade  is  broken  by  two  others,  so  as 
to  include  the  outer  corners  of  the  donjon.  The  walls  are 
divided  into  panels  by  horizontal  string-courses  and  pilasters, 
which,  with  the  window  openings  and  other  details,  are 
arranged  with  rigid  symmetry  and  regularity.  Were  it  not 
for  the  round  towers,  which  are  of  enormous  girth,  the  walls 
would  pass  for  commonplace  Renaissance,  but  the  roof  that 
crowns  the  whole  structure  is  of  most  riotous  Gothic,  carried 
out  in  Renaissance  detail.  It  scarcely  seems  credible  that 
this  was  the  design  of  the  same  architect  that  created  the 
dainty  little  chateau  of  Chenonceau.  This  roof  fairly  bristles 
with  a  forest  of  towers,  turrets,  dormers,  and  chimneys,  all 
of  which  are  carried  out  in  rather  coarse  Renaissance  detail, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  37. 

99.  In  the  center  of  the  donjon  was  a  double  staircase 
as  celebrated  for  its  ingenuity  as  that  at  Blois  was  for  its 
beauty.  This  staircase  consisted  of  two  spiral  flights,  one 
coiled  within  the  other,  so  that  persons  going  up  and  down 
stairs  would  not  meet  in  passing.  On  the  second  floor,  this 


§31 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


253 


stairway  opened  at  the  intersection  of  two  wide  corridors,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  33,  and  continued  its  windings  up  to  a  lantern 
above  the  roof,  as  shown  in  Fig.  37,  where  it  ended  on  a 
balcony.  As  shown  in  Fig.  38,  one  of  the  spiral  stairways 
starts  from  the  landing  shown,  and  winds  to  the  left  in  a 
continuous  flight,  while  the  second  stairway  starts  at  the 
landing  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  shaft  and  winds  spirally 
beneath  the  first.  In  the  illustration,  the  two  balustrades 


FIG.  38 

that  show  one  over  the  other  flank  the  two  independent  stair- 
ways. The  interior  double  stairway  terminates  in  the  lantern 
shown  in  the  center,  Fig.  37,  from  \vhich  access  is  obtained 
to  the  immense  roof,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  balustrade. 

All  the  carved  details  are  interwoven  with  the  crowned  F 
or  crowned  salamander  of  Francis,  and  occasionally  with  the 
crowned  H  of  Henry  II,  his  son,  who  inherited  the  chateau 
after  Francis  I  died  and  left  it  unfinished,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  1,800  men  had  worked  on  it  for  12  years. 


256  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

100.  Hunting  Lodge  of  Francis  I. — The  hunting  lodge 
of  Francis   I,  Fig.  39,  was  built  in  1527  at  Moret,  in  the 
forest  of  Fontainebleau,  about  35  miles  from  Paris.     It  is 
characteristic  of  this  period  of  the  Renaissance  and  shows 
more  than  do  the  chateaux  of  Touraine  the  strong  influence 
of  the  Italian  style.     The  treatment  of  the  facade,  with  the 
solid  ends  and  the  windows  grouped  in  the  center,  is  dis- 
tinctly   Venetian.      The    ornament   is  rich   and   beautifully 
executed   and    shows  scenes  from   the  chase    and  portrait 
medallions  of  members  of  the  royal  family. 

101.  Church  of  St.  Etienne  du  Mont. — St.  Etienne 
du  Mont,  Fig.  40,  was  one  of  the  few  churches  built  during 
the  reign  of  Francis  I.     Ecclesiastical  architecture  received 
scant  attention  during  this  period,  but  the  edifices  of  this 
kind  that  were  erected  adhered  far  more  closely  to  Gothic 
details  than  did  the  secular  buildings.     In  Fig.  40,  the  main 
portal,  with  its  four  columns  and  pediment  with  superimposed 
attic  treatment,  is  essentially  classic,  but  the  rose  window  in 
the  center,  the  pointed  gable  above,  the  traceries  in  the  open- 
ings, the  flying  buttresses  at  the  side,  and  the  irregularities 
of  the  sky  line,  are  Gothic  in  the  extreme. 

102.  Louvre  Palace. — The  most  important  work  of  the 
Francis  I  period  was  the  rebuilding  of  the  Louvre,  in  Paris. 
The  old  Gothic  fortified  palace  had  always  been  the  principal 
residence  of  the  kings,  but  it  had  become  so  unsuited  to  the 
requirements  of  the  age  that  it  was  torn  down  in  1546  and 
entirely  rebuilt  in  the  new  style  from  plans  prepared  by  two 
architects — Serlio,  an  Italian,  and  Pierre  Lescot,  a  French- 
man.    The  Louvre  consists  of  a  quadrangular  court  394  feet 
square  surrounded  on  four  sides  by  galleries,  Fig.  31  (c), 
two  of  which  extend  westward  until  they  meet  the  Palais 
Tuileriesa^.     The  east  wing,  or  gallery*?/,  of  the  Louvre 
is  548  feet  long  and  90  feet  high,  and  contains  the  celebrated 
colonnade,  subsequently  designed  by  Perrault.     The  south 
side  bdf  faces  the  river  Seine,  and  is  2,250  feet  long.     In 
the  middle  of  each  fagade  facing  the  quadrangular  court, 
there  is  a  pavilion  rising  above  an  archway,  over  each  of 


FIG.  41 


257 


258  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

which  are  constructed  niches  that  were  afterwards  embel- 
lished with  statues.  The  height  is  divided  into  three  stories, 
the  divisions  of  which  are  emphasized  by  pilasters  in  the 
Corinthian  and  Composite  orders.  The  orders,  however, 
were  not  used  in  great  prominence,  but  the  ornament  and 
sculpture  were  appropriate  and  refined. 

103.  Classic     Period. — The    Classic     Renaissance 
included   the   period   immediately   following    the    reign   of 
Francis  I  up  to  the  end  of  the  16th  century.     The  charming 
independence  of  the  Francis  I  style  began  to  give  way  about 
the  middle  of  the  16th  century  to  a  more  servile  copying  of 
antique    details.     Fagades   became  flat,   and  cornices  were 
more  conspicuous.     Arches  were  introduced  after  the  Roman 
style,  and  the  carving  became  heavier  and  more  aggressive 
instead    of   delicate    and    fanciful,    as    were   the    arabesque 
designs  of  the  earlier  period. 

104.  In  the  southwest  wing  of  the  chateau  at  Blois, 
Fig.    41,    which   was    designed    by    Frangois   Mansard   for 
Gaston  of  Orleans,  a  brother  of  Henry   IV,   the  tendency 
to  copy  the  classic  orders  literally,  and  to  decorate  every 
opening  and  angle   with  some  form  of   classic   ornament, 
regardless  of  the  convenience  of  plan  or  the  propriety  of 
the  detail,  is  clearly  shown.     As  the  architects  became  more 
learned,  they  lost  their  fearlessness  and  independence,  and 
instead  of  simply  borrowing  ideas  from  classic  models,  they 
appropriated  the  whole  system. 

The  Roman  orders  of  architecture,  according  to  Vignola, 
were  loyally  reproduced  by  Mansard  in  the  southwest  wing 
at  Blois,  presenting  a  contrast  to  the  wing  of  Francis  I  that 
is  full  of  historic  meaning.  Mansard  constructed  the  first 
story  in  the  Doric  order,  the  second  story  in  the  Ionic  order, 
and  the  third  story  in  the  Corinthian  order,  precisely  as  the 
works  of  Vignola  dictated.  The  window  heads,  pediments, 
and  arch  imposts  were  all  intended  to  be  strictly  Roman, 
and  a  suggestion  that  any  part  of  the  composition  was  of 
French  origin  would  have  been  considered  an  insult  to  the 
designer.  The  roof,  however,  was  an  invention  of  the 


259 


FIG.  42 


260  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

architect;  existing  through  necessity,  it  was  designed  to 
slope  back,  as  if  hiding  behind  the  aristocratic  classic  detail. 
No  high  roofs  existed  in  the  ancient  monuments,  and  it  was 
impossible  for  the  architects  of  the  17th  century  to  introduce 
to  prominence  any  detail,  no  matter  how  necessary,  that  had 
not  its  origin  in  classic  Rome. 

105.  Sorbonne    Church. — The    Sorbonne    Church, 
Fig.  42,   was  one  of  the  most  interesting  designs  of  the 
classic  period.     The  exterior  is  a  simple  composition,  being 
treated  with  superimposed  orders  under  a  low  pediment  in 
the  center.     A  high  dome  covers  the  center  of  the  plan, 
around  which  are  grouped  heavy,  square  pilasters  that  serve 
as  buttresses.     In  this  period  and  the  successive  ones,  the 
dome  is  more  and  more  frequently  used  as  an  important 
detail,  even  sometimes  to  the  subordination  of  the  other  parts. 

106.  Age  of  Louis  XIV. — The  age  of  Louis  XIV  was 
remarkable  for  its  literary  and  artistic  activity.     The  archi- 
tecture was  conspicuous  by  its  liberal  use  of  the  orders  in 
exterior  design,  while  the  interior  decoration  was  showy  and 
capricious,  usually  to  excess.     Papier  mache'  and  stucco  were 
freely  used  in  some  examples  of  relief  ornamentation  far 
better  suited  to  the  decoration  of  a  boudoir  than  that  of  a 
ballroom  or  a  hall  of  assembly. 

107.  In  1688,  the  east  wing  of  the  Louvre  was  completed 
from  the  designs  of  Claude  Perrault,  the  court  physician, 
whose  plans  were  accepted  in  preference  to  those  of  Bernini. 
The  colonnade  of  the  Louvre  forms  one  of  the  most  impos- 
ing facades  in  existence,  but  it  is  a  mere  decoration,  and 
possesses  no  structural  relation  to  the  building  it  forms  a 
part  of.     It  is  dignified  and  stately  and  well  suited  to  its 
position  on  the  facade  of  the  finest  palace  in  France,  but  its 
existence  is  structurally  unnecessary.     (See  Fig.  43.) 

108.  To  this  period  is  also  due  the  Hotel  des  Invalides, 
or  veterans'  asylum,  Fig.  44,  by  Jules  H.  Mansard,  a  son  of 
Franc.ois  Mansard.     Here  the  classic  orders  may  be  seen  in 
superposed  series  with  Palladian  regularity,  while  the  whole 
is  crowned  with  a  dome,  which  is  a  masterpiece  of  the  age. 


FIG.  44 


FIG.  45 


264  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

109.  Age  of  Louis  XV. — Under  Louis  XV,  the  Rococo 
was  introduced  into  France  through  the  effort  to  inject  some 
originality  into  the  old,  stereotyped  classic  designs.     External 
decoration  tended  to  the  greatest  extravagance  in  design  and 
an  utter  disregard  for  constructive  propriety.     Scrolls,  shells, 
palm  leaves,  and  distorted  forms  were  carved  on  the  cornices 
and  friezes  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  straight  lines. 

110.  The  Church  of  St.   Sulplce  was  built  in  1755. 
The  interior  of  this  structure,  Fig.  46,  dates  from  the  17th 
century,  and  though  well  designed,  is  in  no  way  a  remark- 
able composition.     The  fagade,  however,  designed  by  Ser- 
vandoni,  is  one  of  the  most  striking  architectural  compositions 
in  Paris.     It  consists  of  a  classic  composition  in  two  stories, 
with  a  well-proportioned  Doric  order  below  and  a  superposed 
Ionic  order  supporting  the  main  corners.     Two  tall  lateral 
turrets  flank  the  angles  and  render  the  design  symmetrical 
and  well  balanced. 

111.  "Versailles  Palace. — The  palace  at  Versailles  is 
an  immense  edifice  that  was  built  by  Louis  XIII  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  17th  century.     Its  erection  almost  exhausted  the 
resources  of  the  national  treasury,  and  considering  the  great 
expenditure  the  result  is  far  from  satisfactory.     There  is  no 
dominant  feature  in  the  composition;   neither  is  there   an 
imposing  entrance.     The  plan  lacks  the  ingenuity  usually 
displayed  by  the  French  architects.     It  consists  of  a  central 
court  and  two  great  wings,  one  extending  to  the  north  and 
the  other  to  the  south.     A  portion  of  the  northern  wing  is 
shown  in  Fig.  47,  from  which  can   be   seen   the    lack   of 
harmony  in   the  details.     The  tetrastyle  portico    over   the 
rustic  basement  is  the  pavilion  of  Louis  XIV,   while  the 
structure  to  the  right  of  it  is  the  chapel,   the  interior  of 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  48. 

112.  Petit    Trianon.— The    Petit    Trianon,    Fig.    49, 
erected  by  Louis  XV,  in  1766,  shows  clearly  the  tendency 
to  adopt  fully  the  Italian  Renaissance  detail.     The  treatment 
here  is  essentially  after  the  Roman  school  and  shows  no 
influence  of  the  French  traditions. 


265 


FIG.  4fi 


FIG.  48 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  269 


ANALYTICAL   STUDY 


PLANS 

113.  The  Gothic  castle  plans  materially  influenced  the 
early  chateaux,  many  of  which  were  built  on  the  sites  of  old 
medieval  structures.  A  few  large  residence  structures,  how- 
ever, were  erected  on  entirely  new  sites,  and  Chambord  may 
be  taken  as  an  example  of  one  of  them.  Chambord  was  an 
early  attempt  at  an  ideal  palace  plan.  The  town  houses 
retained  the  interior  court  of  the  medieval  castle,  and  closed 
it  on  the  street  side  with  a  screen  wall.  The  windows  of 
the  principal  ground-floor  apartments  opened  on  the  court 
and  not  on  the  street.  In  Italy,  the  central  courtyard  was 
the  principal  feature  of  the  palaces.  It  was  usually  sur- 
rounded by  a  covered  colonnade  or  an  arcade  over  which 
the  second  floor  projected. 


WALLS 

114.  At  first,  the  wails  retained  the  Gothic  gables  and 
stone  dormers,  but  later  they  gave  way  to  the  classic  pedi- 
ment and  balustrade.  The  mansard  roof  was  used  over 
pavilions  at  the  angles.  Stone  was  used  chiefly,  though  in 
some  localities  brick  was  combined  with  it.  The  architec- 
tural orders  were  sparingly  used  at  first,  but  later  gave 
way  to  strong  classic  treatment.  This  contrasted  with  the 
Italian  style,  which  from  the  beginning  made  extensive  use 
of  the  orders  on  the  plain,  straight  facades,  with  their 
heavy  projecting  cornices. 


ROOFS 

115.  The  high,  pitched  roof  of  the  Gothic  style  remained 
to  characterize  the  French  Renaissance,  while  flat,  low  roofs 
characterized  the  Italian  style,  where,  owing  to  narrow 
streets,  the  roof  could  not  be  seen.  Chimney  stacks  were 


i70 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  271 

hidden  in  most  Italian  examples,  but  at  Venice  and  in  early 
examples  at  Florence,  tile  roofs  were  made  visible  above 
the  cornice,  while  in  France  the  fanciful  treatment  of  the 
chimneys  was  characteristic  of  the  style. 


COLUMNS 

116.  In  the  early  work,  pilasters  were  mere  decorative 
adjuncts  to  Gothic  construction,  but  later  they  were  paneled 
and  carved  with  geometrical  and  foliated  ornament;  whereas, 
in  Italy,  geometrical  decoration  of  the  pilasters  was  unusual, 
the  pilaster  there  being  used  for  its  architectural  value  as  an 
order,  rather  than  for  its  decorative  effect.  In  France,  an 
order  of  pilasters  was  used  to  support  the  window  head  in 
the  first  story,  and  the  pedestal  of  the  superimposed  order 
formed  the  sill-course  in  the  story  above,  thus  showing  the 
influence  of  Vignola;  whereas,  the  Italian  style  carried  an 
order  through  two  stories,  after  the  system  of  Palladio. 


OPENINGS 

117.  The  mullions  and  transoms  of  the  Gothic  style 
remained  in  the  Early  Renaissance  (see  Fig.  33),  but  later, 
as  the  orders  were  used  successively  in  each  story,  the  hori- 
zontal lines  of  their  entablatures  were  used  to  mark  the 
sill-courses  and  lintel  courses  of  the  windows  (see  Fig.  42). 
Symmetry,  both  in  size  and  in  arrangement,  was  aimed  at 
until  toward  the  end  of  the  period,  when  there  was  little 
original  feeling  left  in  the  designs.  In  Fig.  50  are  shown 
three  characteristic  doorways.  At  (a)  is  an  example  from 
Chenonceau  wherein  the  classic  details  are  used  decora- 
tively,  while  the  Louis  XIV  door  at  (c)  and  the  Louis  XVI 
door  at  (b)  show  the  severe  treatment  imposed  by  close 
adherence  to  the  Italian  style.  In  the  Italian  Renaissance, 
symmetry  regulated  the  openings  from  the  beginning,  and 
in  the  late  examples  the  position  of  these  openings  was 
determined  more  by  the  rules  of  the  classic  orders  than  by 
convenience  of  interior  arrangement. 

ILT  303—37 


272  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

The  attic  was  rare  in  the  Italian  style,  but  a  special 
feature  in  the  French.  The  heavy  cornice,  with  windows  in 
the  frieze,  topped  the  Italian  wall,  while  a  balustrade  sur- 
mounted the  French  wall,  and  dormer-windows  appear  above 
it  in  the  roof  slope.  

MOLDINGS 

118.  The  Early  French  moldings  were  a  combination  of 
classic  and  Gothic,  but  the  Gothic  details  gradually  gave 
way  to  the  full  classic  profiles.     The  Italian  moldings  were 
full  and  of  great  projection,  especially  in  the  great  over- 
hanging  cornices.      The   string-courses   in  the  early  work 
were  of  less  projection,  in  order  to  preserve  the  dominance 
of  the  cornice.     Where  orders  were  used  in  the  stories,  the 
moldings  were  purely  classic  and  were  studied  with  great 
care.  

ORNAMENT 

119.  In  France,  where  the  Gothic  period  had  left  many 
fine  examples  of  carved-wood  panels,  wood  remained  in  use 
for  decorative  work  and  was  richly  carved  with  arabesque 
designs.      In  Italy,   however,  modeled  plaster  and  frescos 
were  used  for  decorative  effect.     Later,  Raffael  used  a  com- 
bination of  the  two,  and  this  style  pervaded  the  later  orna- 
ment of  the  French  Renaissance,  when  more  Italian  artists 
were  imported  to  work  on  the  palaces  of  Versailles  and 
Fontainebleau. 

During  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  the  characteristic  tapestry 
hangings  as  a  wall  decoration  were  superseded  by  panels 
of  papier  mache"  and  stucco  decoration  in  white  and  gold. 
Every  detail  was  ornamented  with  it,  and  during  the  period 
of  Louis  XV  the  rococo  details  assumed  an  elaborate  and 
meaningless  character  that  destroyed  entirely  the  decorative 
value  of  the  ornament. 

120.  Characteristic    ornamental    details    in    the    Early 
French  Renaissance  were  the  initials  and  symbolic  devices 
of  the  kings  interwoven  with  other  ornament  in  the  carved 


'•).,         i^isp 

'///'iSBafc--  l^»      ^frFV»        W 


PIG.  51 


274  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

work.  In  Fig.  51  (a)  is  shown  one  of  the  gables  from  the 
Francis  I  wing  of  the  chateau  at  Blois,  in  which  a  royal 
crown  pierced  by  the  letter  F  forms  the  sole  panel  decora- 
tion. In  (b)  is  illustrated  the  door  head  from  the  chapel  of 
the  chateau,  with  the  crowned  L  and  A,  for  Louis  XII  and 
Anne  of  Brittany,  together  with  two  shields,  on  which 
appear  the  fleur-de-lis,  emblematic  of  the  king,  and  the 
conventional  ermine,  the  device  of  the  queen.  The  latter 
is  shown  more  in  detail  in  (c),  a  chimney  breast  over  a 
fireplace  at  Blois,  where,  on  each  side  of  the  crowned  A,  are 
grouped  tufts  of  ermine  fur  and  also  the  "cordon,"  another 
device  of  the  queen.  In  (d),  on  another  chimney  breast, 
between  the  crowned  L  and  A,  is  a  crowned  porcupine,  the 
king's  personal  emblem.  The  background  of  this  example 
is  made  up  of  dolphins,  which  were  the  emblems  of  the 
princes  of  France  that  were  next  heirs  to  the  throne. 
Above,  in  the  frieze,  is  the  cordon  of  Anne.  In  (e),  a 
crowned  central  shield  divided  through  the  center  contains, 
on  each  half,  the  fleur-de-lis  and  the  ermine,  respectively, 
while  in  (/),  the  crowned  porcupine  and  crowned  ermine  are 
carved  in  full  relief. 

121.  These  animal  emblems  and  other  devices  appear 
throughout  the  French  Renaissance,  and  in  many  cases 
identify  the  period.  The  device  of  Francis  I  was  a  sala- 
mander and  was  carved  in  the  dormer  heads,  similar  to  the  F 
shown  in  Fig.  51  (a),  in  the  side-wall  panels,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  32.  The  crowned  H  was  used  by  Henry  II,  and  was 
frequently  interwoven  with  a  C,  for  his  queen,  Catherine  de 
Medici,  or  a  D,  or  crescent,  for  his  court  favorite,  Diana 
of  Poitiers. 

The  painted  arabesque  panels  of  the  French  Renaissance 
were  quite  as  elaborate  as  those  of  Italy,  many  of  them 
having  been  executed  by  Italian  artists  or  by  French  artists 
trained  in  the  Italian  schools.  The  designs  are  similar  to 
the  Italian  school,  but  give  less  prominence  to  the  mytho- 
logical symbols  than  the  designs  found  in  Italy.  The 
panels  shown  in  Fig.  30  (c)  and  (d)  introduce  birds  and 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  275 

human  figures  with  insects,  festoons,  and  foliated  devices, 
but  without  such  direct  symbolic  references  to  the  influences 
of  the  old  classic  mythology.  Industrial  and  symbolic 
emblems,  such  as  the  palette,  the  pipes  of  Pan,  the  cornu- 
copia, etc.,  were  liberally  introduced  and  all  rendered  in  a 
brilliant  and  luminous  manner. 


REVIEW    EXERCISES 

1.  What  are  the    general    characteristics  of    French    Renaissance 
architecture? 

2.  (a)    Into    what    periods    is    French    Renaissance    architecture 
divided?     (£)   What  reigns  are  comprised  in  each? 

3.  What  contrasting  influences  characterize  the  designs  of  French 
and  Italian  residences? 

4.  What  are  the  principal  structures  of  the  Early  French  Renais- 
sance period? 

5.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the    (a)   Early  French  Renais- 
sance  designs?     (£)   the   Classic   period?     (c)   Name  one    building  of 
each  period,  and  state  briefly  why  it  is  classified  in  this  period. 

6.  What  political  influences  favored  the  introduction  of  Renaissance 
art  into  France  from  Italy? 

7.  To    what  succession  of  historical  events  does  France  owe  her 
subjection  to  strong  Italian  influences  for  nearly  a  century? 

8.  What  was    the    Edict  of  Nantes?     (b)   By    whom  was    it  made 
operative?     (c)   How  long  was   it   in  force?     (d)   By  whom  and  when 
was  it  withdrawn?     (e)  What  effect  upon  the  prosperity  of  the  country 
did  its  withdrawal  have? 

9.  Describe  briefly  some  of  the  causes  that  led  up   to  the  French 
Revolution. 

10.  (a)  What  form  of  government  followed  the  French  Revolution? 
(d)  By  whom  was  it  overthrown? 

11.  In  what  way  was  the  architectural  taste  of  the  people  affected 
by  the  overthrow  of  the  French  monarchy? 


276  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


GERMAN    RENAISSANCE 


INFLUENCES 

122.  Geographical. — See  German  Romanesque  Influ- 
ences, History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament^  Part  2. 

123.  Geological. — Absence  of  stone  in  Northern  Ger- 
many caused  designs  to  be  worked  out  in  brick.     Molded 
and  cut  brickwork  therefore  strongly  characterized  the  style. 

124.  Climatic. — See  German  Romanesque  Influences, 
History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  2. 

125.  Religious. — Martin   Luther,   a  priest  of  peasant 
origin,  objected  to  certain  practices  of  the  Church  that  were 
authorized  by  the  pope,  and  posted  on  all  the  church  doors 
in  the  community  his  denunciation  of  the  papal  approval. 
For  this  act  he  was  excommunicated  from  the  Church.     Ho 
and  his  followers  protested  against  the  edict  passed  in  1820 
by  the  Diet  of  Spires,  and  thereafter  Luther  and  his  followers 
were  known  as  Protestants.     Luther  translated  the  Bible  into 
high  Dutch,  and  thus  caused  that  language  to  become  the 
acknowledged  German  tongue. 

126.  Political   and   Historical. — Germany    consisted 
of  a  number  o'f  small  kingdoms,  or  principalities,  each  of 
which   was   ruled    by    its    own    king,    thus    preventing    any 
national  union  of  all  sections,  as  was  the  case  in  France. 
From  the  election  of  Rudolph  I  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg  as 
emperor,  down  to  the  reign  of  Maximilian  of  the  house  of 
Austria,  there  had  been  rulers  elected  from  each  of  several 
states,  but  no  one  principality  had  controlled  the  reins  of 
government  long  enough  to  unite  the  people  into  one  homo- 
geneous nation.    With  the  ascendency  of  the  house  of  Austria, 
however,  Germany  was  destined  to  remain  under  the  same 
line  of  rulers,  with  a  short  interruption,  for  nearly  400  years. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  277 

The  reign  of  Frederick  III  of  this  house  was  a  feeble  one, 
but  it  saw  the  invention  of  printing  by  Gutenberg,  which  was 
destined  to  play  such  an  important  part  in  the  Reformation 
and  Renaissance.  Maximilian  I,  son  of  Frederick,  reunited 
the  several  states  into  a  homogeneous  empire.  By  marriage 
with  Mary  of  Burgundy  he  acquired  Burgundy,  to  which  the 
Netherlands  belonged,  and  he  witnessed  the  beginning  of  the 
Reformation  by  Martin  Luther.  Under  Charles  I,  his  suc- 
cessor, Germany  passed  through  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
periods  in  her  history.  Charles  I  was  the  son  of  Archduke 
Philip  of  Austria,  and  grandson  of  Maximilian.  His  mother 
was  Johanna,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain. 
Through  his  father  he  inherited  the  empire  of  Germany, 
while  from  his  mother  he  received  the  kingdom  of  Spain. 
His  vast  inheritances,  combined  with  his  great  ability,  made 
him  the  most  powerful  emperor  since  Charlemagne.  In  1516, 
Charles  I  succeeded  Ferdinand  as  king  of  Spain;  in  1519  he 
became  emperor  of  Germany;  and  in  1520,  he  was  crowned 
emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  under  title  of  Charles  V. 
Charles  V  and  his  successors  supported  the  Catholics,  ana 
waged  war  against  the  Protestant  princes  almost  Constantly 
until  1648,  when  peace  was  declared  and  religious  liberty 
granted. 

England,  Scotland,  and  Sweden  joined  in  this  war  on  the 
Protestant  side,  for  the  sake  of  religion,  while  France 
entered  on  the  Catholic  side,  for  her  own  aggrandizement. 
As  a  result  of  the  peace,  finally  signed  at  Westphalia,  in 
1648,  Germany  was  utterly  ruined,  Switzerland  and  the 
Netherlands  were  recognized  as  independent  states,  and 
France  had  risen  to  the  leading  power  of  Europe.  Shortly 
after  this  time  Louis  XIV  was  pursuing  his  policy  of  aggran- 
dizement, and  the  influence  of  France  throughout  Europe 
was  so  great  that  the  German  princes  allied  themselves  with 
France  against  their  Emperor,  and  all  the  little  courts  of  the 
German  states  adopted  the  French  language  and  imitated  the 
immorality  and  prodigality  that  characterized  the  French 
court  and  was  destined  to  cause  its  destruction  at  the  hands 
of  an  enraged  people. 

I  LT  101-23 


278  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


CHARACTERISTICS 

127.  The  characteristics  of  the  German  Renaissance  lie 
chiefly  in  the  quaintness  and  grotesqueness  of  its  ornament, 
being  due  to  the  medieval  traditions  that  were  inherited  from 
the  previous  style.  The  style  was  introduced  from  France 
about  the  time  that  France  was  going  to  the  extreme  in 
classic  details.  German  Renaissance,  therefore,  is  not  so 
refined  as  the  French  style  and  its  details  are  coarse  and 
heavy.  It  had  no  artistic  transitional  period  like  that  of 
the  Francis  I  period,  in  France. 

Germany-,  being  an  empire  composed  of  a  number  of 
smaller  principalities  and  kingdoms,  does  not  present  in 
its  architecture  any  one  dominating  characteristic  that  unifies 
the  style  throughout  the  country.  French  ideas  and  even 
the  French  language  were  so  popular  throughout  Germany 
at  this  time  that  it  is  not  strange  that  the  architectural  detail 
of  the  Rococo  period  should  be  translated  to  the  German 
constructions,  but  like  all  translations  it  naturally  took  a 
strong  German  accent.  The  German  Rococo  copied  the 
scrolls,  shells,  cupids,  and  other  details  of  the  French  style, 
but  made  them  all  heavier  and  bolder,  thereby  losing  much 
of  the  delicacy  and  frothiness  that  was  the  only  recommen- 
dation of  this  style  of  ornament.  In  France,  the  rococo 
decorations  grew  out  of  the  exaggerated  and  excessive 
development  of  the  papier  mach6  ornament  of  the  Louis  XIV 
style.  In  Germany,  the  rococo  devices  were  borrowed 
directly  without  question  of  their  origin  or  purposes. 

This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Renaissance  was  not  intro- 
duced into  Germany  in  the  same  manner  as  it  was  into 
France.  The  Italian  wars  of  Louis  XII,  Charles  VIII,  and 
Francis  I  brought  them  directly  into  contact  with  the  highly 
developed  civilization  of  the  northern  Italian  cities.  These 
monarchs  induced  several  Italian  architects  to  return  to 
France  with  them  and  introduce  the  new  art,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  reign  of  Francis  I  that  architecture  generally 
showed  strong  Italian  influences  in  France. 


§51 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  270 


EXAMPLES 

128.     The  rococo  ornament  of  the  period  of  Louis  XIV 
and  Louis  XV  was  received  into  Germany  and  carried  to 


FIG.  52 


even  greater  excess  than  in  France.  Fig.  52  shows  a  view 
of  one  corner  of  the  state  drawing  room  in  the  Palace 
Brucksal,  at  Baden,  and  indicates  to  what  extremes  this 


280 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


51 


frivolous  detail  can  be  carried  when  the  decorator  is  unfet- 
tered by  lack  of  either  money  or  talented  artists. 

129.     The  Zwinger  galleries,  at  Dresden,  Fig.  53,  are 
elaborately    ornamented    with    carved   cartouches,    shields, 


FIG.  53 

festoons,  and  scrolls,  interspersed  with  animal  and  human 
forms  in  great  profusion. 

130.  Renaissance  ran  well  up  to  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century,  and  at  that  time  it  adopted  classic  forms  abso- 
lutely, without  regard  to  their  propriety  or  convenience. 


FIG.  54 


282 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§51 


STUDY 


PLANS 

131.  In  German  Renaissance,  the  French  method  of 
erecting  buildings  around  an  interior  court  was  adopted, 
and  the  high,  pitched  roofs,  containing  many  stories,  were 
continued  from  the  medieval  period. 


WALLS 

132.  The  gable  ends,  instead  of  conforming  to  the 
pitches  of  the  roof,  assumed  fantastic  and  irregular  outlines, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  54.  Columns  and  pilasters  were  freely 
used  as  wall  decorations,  and  in  this  manner,  effects  of 


FIG.  55 


great  richness  were  frequently  produced.  The  fagade  of  the 
Kaiserhaus,  at  Hildesheim,  is  shown  in  Fig.  55.  Here,  the 
pilasters  along  the  front  bay  window  are  carved  into 
grotesque  male  figures  supporting  a  frieze  representing 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  283 

figures  from  the  hunt.  Niches,  whose  tops  are  supported 
by  Ionic  columns,  contain  statues  of  the  kings  and  emperors, 
and  the  entire  lower  facade  is  richly  carved  in  medallions, 
giving  the  whole  a  decidedly  ornate,  though  rather  coarse, 
appearance.  Brick  and  stone  were  used  in  combination,  and 
also  singly  in  many  instances. 


ROOFS 

133.  High,  pitched  roofs,  with  their  ridges  parallel  with 
or  at  right  angles  to  the  street,  were  as  numerous  as  in  the 
Gothic  period,  and  elaborate  stepped  and  scroll  treatment 
gave  the  gables  great  prominence  where  they  faced  the 
street  (see  Fig.  56).  The  sloping  roof,  as  in  the  Gothic 
period,  was  characterized  by  numerous  dormers  when  it  was 
parallel  with  the  street  front,  as  shown  in  Fig.  57. 


COLUMNS 

134.  The  orders  were  adopted  purely  as  decorative 
details  and  without  regard  to  their  classic  traditions.  Each 
story  of  a  building  was  frequently  marked  with  a  horizontal 
cornice,  but  the  columns  or  pilasters  supporting  it  were  fre- 
quently supported  on  projecting  corbels  instead  of  on  indepen- 
dent pedestals.  The  faces  of  the  pilasters,  or  narrow  panels 
between  the  windows,  were  carved  in  arabesque  patterns,  and 
the  columns  were  richly  decorated  with  carved  detail. 


OPENINGS 

135.  In  the  early  part  of  the  period,  the  windows  were 
large,  mullioned,  and  crowned  with  grotesque  scroll  ornaments, 
instead  of  a  pediment.  Oriole  windows  were  introduced  both 
at  the  angles  of  buildings  and  in  their  facades,  and  late  in  the 
period  severe  classic  forms  were  adopted,  as  in  other  countries. 


MOLDINGS 

136.  The  German  moldings  were  heavy  and  lacked  the 
refinement  and  purity  of  detail  that  characterized  the 
French  moldings. 


284 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  285 


BELGIAN    AND   DUTCH    RENAISSANCE 


INFLUENCES 

137.  Geographical,  Geological,  and  Climatic. — See 

Dutch  and  Belgian  Gothic  Influences,  History  of  Architecture 
and  Ornament,  Part  3. 

138.  Keligious. — In  1556,  Charles  V,  emperor  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  abdicated  and  entered  a  monastery. 
The  kingdom  of  Spain  he  gave  to  his  son  Philip  II,  and  the 
imperial  crown  to  his  brother   Ferdinand.     Philip   II  con- 
tinued the  persecution  of  the  Protestants  begun  by  his  father 
until  the  Dutch  provinces  rose  in  rebellion.     After  a  struggle 
of  37  years,  Spain  was  humbled  and  the  Dutch  republic  was 
established.     The  Belgians,  being  mainly  Catholics,  adhered 
to  Spain  and  were  opposed  to  Holland  during  this  struggle. 
Protestantism    being    thus    established    in    Holland,   church 
building  there  was  in  accord  with  the  congregational  idea. 

On  the  division  of  the  empire  of  Charles  V  at  the  time  of 
his  abdication  in  1556,  the  Netherlands  fell  to  Philip  of  Spain, 
and  although  this  resulted  in  the  cruelest  persecutions  of  the 
Protestants  under  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  it  retained  to  the 
Dutch  a  full  share  of  the  commerce  that  was  opened  through 
the  discovery  of  America  and  the  establishment  of  the 
Spanish  in  the  West  Indies. 

The  Spaniards  and  the  Dutch  were  so  different  in  character, 
however,  that  there  were  constant  clashes  on  both  sides. 
Philip  was  determined  to  crush  the  progress  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, which  had  made  a  deep  impression,  and  had  spread 
rapidly  in  the  Netherlands.  War  broke  out  almost  imme- 
diately after  Philip  had  become  king  of  Spain  and  the  smaller 
states  of  Holland  united  in  a  federation  to  support  the  Prot- 
estant cause.  By  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648,  the 


286  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

Netherlands  were  recognized  as  an  independent  power,  while 
the  more  southern  states,  constituting  what  is  now  known  as 
Belgium,  remained  under  the  dominion  of  Spain  and  retained 
the  Catholic  faith. 

139.  Political  and  Historical. — By  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia  in  1648,  which  closed  the  Thirty  Years  War,  the 
Netherlands  became  an  independent  state.  During  the  prog- 
ress of  their  wars,  the  Dutch  increased  in  wealth  through 
their  activity  in  trade.  They  established  colonies  in  the  New 
World  and  built  the  finest  navy  in  Europe.  The  prosperity 
of  the  newly  recognized  state  was  prodigious  and  in  mari- 
time affairs  it  shared  with  England  the  supremacy  of  the 
world.  Their  achievements  in  science,  literature,  and  art 
gained  the  admiration  of  Europe. 


CHARACTERISTICS 

The  character  of  the  Dutch  is  clearly  shown  in  their 
architecture.  Their  buildings  are  plain,  matter-of-fact  struc- 
tures, more  useful  than  beautiful.  Being  a  frugal  and  saving 
people,  they  did  not  erect  great  monuments  with  their  newly 
acquired  wealth.  Their  churches  were  barn-like  structures, 
planned  for  comfort  and  convenience,  but  nothing  on  a  large 
or  monumental  scale  was  projected. 

140.  In  Belgium,  the  designs  were  wild  and  eccentric, 
but  picturesque,  while  Dutch  examples  are  extremely  plain. 
Brickwork  was  given  much  prominence,  particularly  in 
domestic  architecture,  and  the  design  of  interiors  and  furni- 
ture was  given  close  consideration. 

The  fantastic  and  grotesque  extremes  of  the  German 
rococo  influenced  the  development  of  the  Renaissance  in 
Holland  and  Belgium,  though  these  countries  were  extremely 
slow  in  accepting  the  principles  of  Renaissance  art.  Long 
after  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  the  Flemish  architects 
continued  to  employ  the  florid  Gothic  for  both  religious  and 
secular  structures;  and  during  the  time  that  Holland  was  a 
Spanish  province  there  is  a  strong  suggestion  of  Moorish 
oddities  intermingled  with  crude  German  rococo  ornament. 


FIG.  58 


I  LT  303—38 


288 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§51 


EXAMPLES 

141.  Church,  du  B6guinage. — The  Church  du  Be"guin- 
age,  Fig.  58,  at  Brussels,  is  a  typical  example  of  the  Flemish 
style.  The  absence  of  building  stone  in  this  locality  made 
brick  construction  the  prevailing  practice,  and  the  long, 


FIG.   59 

untapering,  Ionic-capped,  brick  pilasters  on  the  facade  of 
this  building  show  how  ignorant  the  Flemish  architects  were 
of  the  origin  and  meaning  of  the  forms  they  were  copying. 
In  the  second  story  of  the  facade,  the  semidetached  com- 
posite columns  are  built  up  of  brick,  with  a  studied  entasis, 
but  are  backed  with  pilasters  that  are  straight. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  289 

142.  The  treatment  of  the  gables  in  Fig.  58  shows  to 
what  absurd  extremes  ornamentation  can  be  carried  when 
not  properly  understood.     The  low  pediment  of  Greek  art 
was  developed  by  Gothic  architects  into  the  peaked  gable  to 
suit  the  climate  of  Northern   Europe;  but  here  is  a  gable 
front  that  does  not  conform  to  the  outline  of  the  roof  behind 
it  and  that  falsely  declares  itself  to  be  the  end  of  that  roof. 
The  scrolled  outline  of  this  gable,  as  well  as  the  scheme  of 
decoration  around  the  door  and  windows,  owe  their  exist- 
ence to  the  perverted  rococo  of  Germany;  while  the  circular 
and  elliptical  windows  are  inventions  of  the  later  Renaissance 
in  neighboring  countries. 

The  civic  architecture  that  characterized  the  Late  French 
Renaissance  and  led  to  the  erection  of  many  public  build- 
ings and  palaces  is  not  found  in  the  Netherlands,  as  the 
strong  Italian  influences  for  monumental  structures  were 
neutralized  by  the  strong  feeling  for  domesticity.  There  is 
really  no  Renaissance  architecture  here  in  the  true  sense  cf 
the  term,  as  the  ideas  were  borrowed  not  from  the  classic 
Roman  architecture,  but  from  the  French,  German,  and 
Spanish  interpretations  of  the  classic,  and  greatly  modified 
by  the  characteristic  desire  for  simplicity. 

The  domestic  architecture  \vas  the  model  for  the  civic 
building's,  and  the  residences,  warehouses,  markets,  and 
town  halls  were  simple  brick  and  stone  structures  with  the 
stepped  gables  and  the  liberal  windows  and  with  walls  but 
little  elaborated  with  sculptured  ornament. 

143.  Tlic  Market  at  Haarlem,   Fig.  59,  is  character- 
istic of  this  class  of  buildings.     The  stepped  gable  so  promi- 
nent in  the  facade  of  the   dwellings   is  here  enlarged   and 
adapted    to    a    structure    of    a   public    character.     Alternate 
courses  of  stone  and  brick  give  variety  to  the  front,  while 
carved   cartouches   are   sparingly    introduced   into   the    wall 
spaces.     Scrolls    and    rococo    details    borrowed    from    both 
France  and  Germany  are  adopted  as  ornament,  but  with  a 
certain  amount  of  restraint,  for  excess  in  anything  is  con- 
trary to  the  Dutch  characteristics. 


290  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


ANALYTICAL  STUDY 


PLANS 

144.  The  development  of  domestic  architecture  during 
the  Gothic  period  established  a  general  system  of  planning 
that  was  followed  during  the  Renaissance. 


WALLS 

145.  Grotesque  gables  characterize  the  style  through- 
out. Wild  curves,  derived  from  the  rococo  ornament  of 
France  and  Germany,  where  the  style  was  already  on  the 
decline,  were  used  in  the  outlines. 


ROOFS 

146.  The  roofs  continued  to  be  high  and  steep,  with 
many  elaborate  dormer-windows  and  towers.  The  chimneys 
stand  out  boldly  and  add  to  the  picturesque  grouping. 


OPENINGS 

147.  Windows  were  numerous  and  were  crowded  closely 
together.  Pilasters  with  fluted  or  paneled  faces  flanked  the 
jambs  of  windows,  while  entrance  doors  were  treated  with 
columns  and  entablatures. 


MOLDINGS 

148.     The   moldings  were  coarse  and  not  well  propor- 
tioned to  the  material  in  which  they  were  executed. 


ORNAMENT 

149.  Various  grotesque  forms  were  carved  to  fill  panels 
or  other  vacant  spaces  that  could  not  be  otherwise  utilized. 
The  motifs  were  usually  of  Italian  origin,  but  were  worked 
over  and  corrupted  by  the  Dutch  artists  until  their  original 
form  was  lost  almost  entirely.  Much  carved  ornament  was 
executed  in  wood. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  291 


SPANISH  RENAISSANCE 


INFLUENCES 

150.  Geographical,  Geological,  and  Climatic. — See 

Spanish  Gothic  Influences,  History  of  Architecture  and  Orna- 
ment, Part  3. 

151.  Ileligious. — The  Reformation  made  no  headway 
whatever  in  Spain.     Charles  I,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  was  appealed  to  by  the  pope  to  help 
stamp  out  the  heresy  started  by  Luther.     As  Charles  V,  he 
became  emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  did  all  in 
his  power  to  uphold  the  Church  and  the  pope.     On  the  abdi- 
cation of  Charles  V,  Philip  II   succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
Spain,   and   endeavored  to   root  out  Protestantism  both  at 
home  and  in  the  Netherlands,  by  means  of  the  Inquisition. 
The  result  of  this  was  the  decline  of  the  brilliant  career  for 
Spain  started  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  and  culminating 
in  the  empire  of  Charles  V. 

The  Inquisition  was  an  ecclesiastical  court  established  in 
the  12th  century  for  the  suppression  of  heresy  and  the 
punishment  of  heretics.  It  was  developed  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury by  Pope  Innocent  III,  and  its  operation  extended  to 
France,  Spain,  Germany,  Italy,  and  other  countries.  The 
Spanish  Inquisition  was  put  under  the  control  of  the  king  in 
the  15th  century  and  became  noted  for  the  severity  of  its 
acts  and  the  number  of  its  victims.  Thousands  of  suspected 
heretics  were  burned  alive  or  subjected  to  the  crudest 
tortures. 

152.  Political  and  Historical. — The  opening  years  of 
the  16th  century  found  Spain  the  leading  power  in  Europe. 
Under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  the  Moors  had  been  conquered 
in  the  last  decade  of  the   previous  century,  and  Columbus 


292  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

had  added  to  the  wealth  and  glory  of  Spain  through   the 
discovery  of  America. 

Johanna,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  married 
Philip  I,  son  of  Emperor  Maximilian.  Spain  thus  became 
part  of  the  Hapsburg  empire.  Charles  I,  their  gon,  suc- 
ceeded Ferdinand  in  1516  as  King  of  Spain,  and  in  1519, 
under  the  title  of  Charles  V,  he  became  emperor  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire — a  vaster  realm  than  that  of  any 
previous  monarch  except  Charlemagne.  The  severity  of 
his  successor  Philip  II  and  the  Inquisition  alienated  many 
of  his  subjects,  and  led  to  the  rise  of  the  Dutch  republic, 
which  lost  the  Netherlands  to  him  forever.  Spain  was  later 
defeated  by  England,  and  provinces  were  gradually  lost,  so 
that  she  made  little  or  no  progress  during  the  Renaissance 
period  when  other  nations  were  accomplishing  so  much. 


CHARACTERISTICS 

153.  Spanish  Renaissance  is  rich,  florid,  and  fanciful. 
The  early  work  is  interspersed  with  details  from  the  Moorish 
style,  while  the  construction  adheres  to  the  Gothic.  The 
details  are  small  and  finely  executed,  little  consideration 
being  given  to  the  orders  as  structural  details.  Later,  the 
style  assumes  more  classic  proportions,  and  ends  in  the  wild 
extravagances  of  the  rococo,  as  it  did  in  other  countries. 


EXAMPLE 

154.  Hotel  de  V-Ille.— The  Hotel  de  Ville,  or  City 
Hall  of  Seville,  Fig.  60,  is  characteristic  of  the  early  period 
of  the  Spanish  Renaissance.  The  pilasters  in  the  first  story, 
with  their  paneled  faces  and  rich  arabesque  carvings,  are 
not  proportioned  according  to  the  rules  of  Vignola,  but  are 
designed  to  suit  the  existing  conditions.  In  the  upper 
story,  the  columns  are  fancifully  designed,  without  a 
thought  of  classic  precedents,  and  the  carving  throughout 
the  fagade  is  executed  independently  of  any  hard-and-fast 
rules  derived  from  Rome. 


FIG.  60 


294  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


ANALYTICAL   STUDY 


PLANS 

155.  In  churches,  wide  naves  prevail,  sometimes  with- 
out aisles.     Over  the  crossing,  domes  are  common,  and  the 
transepts  are  generally  small.     In  residences,  the  patio,  or 
court  is  almost  universal  and  resembles  the  inner  courts  of 
Italy.     Largeness  of  scale  is  characteristic  of  palaces  and 
churches. 

WALLS 

156.  Brick,  stone,  and  granite  were  freely  used.     Gables 
were   rarely    employed    and    great   wooden   cornices    were 
planted  on  top  of  the  wall  surface.     In  churches,  the  walls 
were  left  plain  in  stonework  on  the  interior,  to  be  hung  with 
tapestries.  

ROOFS 

157.  The  roofs  were  flat,  or  low  in  pitch,  and  the  towers 
were  completed  with  spires  of  slate  or  lead.     Interior  ceil- 
ings are  usually  richly  coffered  in  wood. 


COLUMNS 

158.  The    early   columns    were    light    and    fanciful   in 
design.     Shafts  were  frequently  baluster-shaped  and  were 
decorated  in  low  relief  (see  Fig.  60),  a  characteristic  feature 
in  the  bracket  capital  that  appears  only  in  this  country.     As 
the  style  advanced,  classic  correctness  prevailed  until  super- 
seded by  the  rococo.  

OPENINGS 

159.  Doorways  were  emphasized  by  means  of  columns, 
pilasters,  or  other  striking  details,  and  were  large  in  size, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  entrance,  or  gateway,  is  a  feature 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  295 

of  special  importance  among  the  Oriental  people,  a  charac- 
teristic inherited  from  the  Moors.  Windows  were  protected 
by  elaborate  iron  grilles,  and  were  surrounded  by  a  border 
of  carved  panels,  like  a  frame,  or  were  flanked  with  simple, 
carved  pilasters. 

MOLDINGS 

160.  Gothic  and  Moorish  influences  combined  to  pro- 
duce moldings  of  great  refinement  in  the  Spanish  Renais- 
sance.    Entablatures  are  carried   out  and  around  detached 
columns    and   pilasters,    giving    a    variety    of    outline   and 
shadow  effect. 

ORNAMENT 

161.  The  sculpture  of  this  period  varies  in  merit,  but  is 
usually  dull  and  wanting  in  decorative  treatment.     Tilework 
in  Southern  Spain  is  excellent.     Stained  glass  was  vivid  in 
color    and    showed    Flemish    influences.     Ornamental    iron- 
work, consisting  of  railings,  grilles,  window  screens,  gates, 
etc.,  was  greatly  developed  by  the  Spaniards. 


REVIEW    EXERCISES 

1.  Describe    briefly    the    political    relations    that    existed    between 
Germany,   Spain,   and   the   Netherlands   during   the   first   half  of  the 
16th  century. 

2.  (a)  What  was  the  Thirty  Years  War?     (£)  What  countries  took 
part  in  it?     (c)  What  was  its  result? 

3.  What  was   the   influence   of   France   on   German   affairs  at   the 
close  of  the  17th  century? 

4.  \Vhat  commercial  advantage  fell  to  the  Netherlands  when  the 
empire  of  Charles  V  was  divided? 

5.  (a)   What  was  the  Peace  of  Westphalia?     (b)  What  advantage 
resulted  to  the  Netherlands  through  the  Peace  of  Westphalia? 

6.  What  was  the  Spanish  Inquisition? 


296  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


ENGLISH   RENAISSANCE 


INFLUENCES 

162.  Geographical. — While    England's   isolated   posi- 
tion was  'especially  advantageous  in  the  development  of  the 
Gothic  style,  which  grew  up  there  free  from  any  foreign 
influences,  it  was  decidedly  disadvantageous  for  the  artistic 
interpretation  of  the  Renaissance  style.     Gothic  architecture 
and   ornament    were   based    on    sjerious    problems    of    con- 
struction and  types  derived  from  nature,  the  former  being 
solved  by  local  intellect,  and  the  latter  supplied  by  the  local 
natural  growths.     Renaissance  architecture  and  Renaissance 
ornament  were  one  and  the  same  thing  by  the  time  the  style 
had    affected    England.     The   construction  was  Gothic,   on 
which  the  classic  architectural  forms  were  grafted  purely  for 
decorative  effect.     At  this  period,  however,  the  continent  of 
Europe  was  disrupted  by  almost  constant  war,  and  travel 
from  England  to  Italy  being  a  matter  of  great  difficulty,  few 
of  her  architects  studied  the  Renaissance  on  Italian  soil,  but 
rather  pursued  their  investigations  in  countries  nearer  home. 
Ideas  borrowed  from  the  Netherlands,  where  the  style  was 
already  corrupted,  tended  to  reduce  the  English  Renaissance 
to  a  style  more  freakish  and  eccentric  than  that  of  any  other 
in  Europe. 

163.  Geological. — With    the    increase    of    population, 
wood   was    becoming    scarce,    and    timber    architecture    so 
characteristic    of   the   middle    ages    gradually   disappeared. 
Portland  stone,  similar  in  appearance  to  the  material  used 
in  the  Renaissance  palaces  of  Venice,  influenced  the  style 
somewhat,   and  Holland  influences    made    brick   a   popular 
material,  particularly  in  London  after  the  great  fire  of  1666. 
The  development  of  a  great  coal  industry  cheapened  fuel,  in 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  297 

consequence  of  which  nearly  every  room  had  its  fireplace 
and  numerous  chimneys  broke  the  roof  line. 

164.  Climatic. — See  Climatic  Influences  under  English 
Gothic,  History  of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  2. 

165.  lleli^ious. — In  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century, 
a   general  upheaval  in   religious   matters  was   felt  all  over 
Europe.     The  supreme  power  of  the  pope  over  all  matters 
of  religion,  as  well  as  of  state,  was  found  to  be  irksome  to 
the  English,  and  when  the  Church  began  to  impose  on  the 
ignorance  of  the  people  for  her  own  aggrandizement,  there 
was  a  revolt.     King  Henry  VIII  of  England  renounced  the 
pope  as  the  supreme  head  of  the  Church  and  elected  himself 
to  that  sublime  office.     The  pope  then  excommunicated  the 
king  from  the  fellowship  of  the  Church  and  declared  him  to 
have  forfeited  the  allegiance  of  his  subjects. 

Henry  then  had  Parliament  pass  a  law  to  the  effect  that  any 
English  subject  that  denied  the  king's  right  to  the  title  of 
head  of  the  Church  would  be  held  guilty  of  high  treason  and 
put  to  death.  Henry  seized  and  suppressed  all  the  mon- 
asteries in  England  and  distributed  the  lands  and  money 
they  possessed  among  his  courtiers.  The  monasteries  them- 
selves fell  to  ruin  or  were  converted  into  cathedral  churches. 
Others  were  demolished  and  manor  houses  erected  on  the 
estates  composed  of  the  forfeited  lands.  Thus  arose  in 
England  the  desire  and  taste  for  comfortable  residences, 
which  culminated,  in  the  age  of  Elizabeth,  in  the  character- 
istic English  mansion. 

166.  Political  and     Historical. — The    reign    of 
Henry  VIII   in   England    (1509   to   1547)   was   contempora- 
neous with  that  of  Francis  I  in  France.     His  court  included 
many  foreigners  whom  he  had  invited  to  England  to  further 
the  Renaissance  movement. 

Among  these  were  Holbein,  an  artist  from  Basle,  Germany; 
Torrigiano,  a  Florentine  sculptor  and  architect,  who  had 
studied  under  Michelangelo;  John  of  Padua,  another  Italian 
architect;  and  several  others.  A  number  of  schools  and  col- 
leges were  erected  at  this  time  with  the  funds  derived  from 


298  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

the  suppressed  monasteries,  and  these  with  their  educational 
systems  contributed  largely  to  the  development  of  the  style. 

Henry  VIII  was  married  six  times,  and  three  of  his  chil- 
dren by  three  different  wives  were  to  ascend  the  English 
throne.  In  1509,  he  married  Catherine  of  Aragon,  a  daughter 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain,  who  was  naturally,  like 
himself,  an  ardent  Catholic.  He  condemned  the  Reformation 
under  Luther  so  strongly  that  he  received  from  Pope  Leo  X 
the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith.  In  1533,  however,  when 
he  wanted  to  divorce  Catherine  and  could  not  get  the  papal 
sanction,  he  repudiated  the  pope's  authority  and  married 
Anne  Boleyn.  For  this  he  was  excommunicated  by  the 
pope,  but  immediately  in  1534  caused  parliament  to  pass  an 
act  declaring  him  and  his  successors  to  be  head  of  the  church. 
He  had  Anne  Boleyn  beheaded  in  1536,  and  the  day  after  the 
execution  he  married  Jane  Seymour. 

Henry  died  in  1547  and  was  succeeded  by  Edward  VI,  his 
son  by  his  third  wife,  Jane  Seymour.  Edward  reigned 
6  years  and  encouraged  the  Reformation;  then  his  half 
sister  Mary,  daughter  of  Henry's  divorced  wife,  Catherine 
of  Aragon,  came  to  the  throne.  Mary  restored  the  Catholic 
faith  and  to  strengthen  it  she  married  Philip  II  of  Spain, 
but  when  she  died  in  1588,  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Henry's 
second  wife,  Anne  Boleyn,  ascended  the  throne. 

167.  The  reign  of  Elizabeth  was  the  most  progressive  era 
in  the  history  of  the  country.  Elizabeth  restored  Protestant- 
ism as  the  state  religion,  and  the  Catholic  powers  of  Europe 
formed  many  schemes  to  dethrone  her  and  elect  a  Catholic 
in  her  place.  Spain  was  particularly  aggressive  in  this,  and 
finally  attempted  an  invasion  of  England  by  land  and  sea.  A 
fleet  of  129  ships  therefore  set  out  with  20,000  men  to  cooper- 
ate with  a  further  land  force  of  34,000  that  was  to  join  them 
from  the  Netherlands.  This  expedition  was  a  total  failure. 
The  fleet  was  practically  destroyed,  the  land  force  discouraged 
by  the  outlook,  and  consequently  the  power  of  Spain  in  the 
affairs  of  Europe  reduced  to  nothing.  Protestantism  gained 
in  strength  and  the  Huguenots  in  France  took  courage. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  209 

Elizabeth  continued  the  good  work  of  school  building  and 
encouraged  the  erection  of  great  domestic  mansions.  Work- 
men and  weavers  came  to  England  in  large  numbers  from 
the  Netherlands  and  Germany,  and  later,  numerous  Hugue- 
nots came  over  from  France,  thus  influencing  the  style 
materially  with  much  foreign  feeling  and  detail.  After 
Elizabeth  came  her  uncle,  king  of  Scotland,  who  ruled  in 
England  as  James  I  from  1603  to  1625. 

Charles  I  reigned  from  1625  to  1649,  but  he  constantly 
disagreed  with  the  parliament  and  civil  war  broke  out  with 
the  result  that  the  king  was  beheaded  in  1649.  England 
was  then  governed  as  a  Commonwealth  under  Cromwell, 
the  leading  general  in  the  late  war  on  the  parliament  side, 
but  the  Commonwealth  became  unpopular  and  the  people 
clamored  for  the  return  of  royalty,  so  Charles  II,  son  of  the 
beheaded  monarch,  was  crowned  in  1660  and  reigned  until 
16S5.  Charles  was  too  much  under  the  influence  of  France, 
and  inflamed  the  people  by  the  extravagances  of  his  court 
and  his  leaning  to  the  Catholic  faith,  and  when  his  successor, 
James  II,  came  to  the  throne  in  1685  and  further  favored  the 
Catholic  party,  parliament  invited  foreign  interference  from 
the  Netherlands.  The  king's  daughter,  Mary,  had  been 
married  to  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  was  a  Protestant. 
William  and  Mary  were  invited  to  take  the  English  throne 
and  in  1685  they  landed  at  Torbay  with  15,000  men. 
James  II  fled  to  France,  where  he  died  later,  a  pensioner 
of  the  court  of  Louis  XIV. 

After  William  and  Mary  came  Anne  (1702  to  1714),  second 
daughter  of  James  II. 

After  the  rise  of  Holland  and  when  William  of  Orange 
came  to  the  throne  of  England,  architecture  was  much 
affected  by  Dutch  details;  and  later,  when  George  I  of 
Hanover  became  king,  a  period  of  development  in  domes- 
tic architecture  set  in  that  lasted  until  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century. 


300  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


CHARACTERISTICS 

168.  English  Renaissance  may  be  divided  into  three 
general  periods:  the  Elizabethan,  the  Anglo-Classic,  and 
the  Classic  Revival.  Some  authorities  make  further  sub- 
divisions, but,  generally  speaking,  the  ones  just  mentioned 
comprise  the  only  real  differences. 

When  the  great  Renaissance  movement  was  born  in  Italy, 
which  was  then  the  ecclesiastical  center  of  the  world,  it  was 
impossible  that  its  influence  should  not  be  felt  in  every 
Christian  country.  The  force  of  this  influence  was  checked 
in  England  by  the  break  between  the  English  church  and 
the  pope.  The  influence  of  Italy  is  shown  in  the  regu- 
larity and  symmetry  of  the  plans  and  in  the  attempt  to 
use  the  orders,  but  with  a  very  indefinite  idea  of  their  pro- 
portions. Otherwise  there  was  little  to  associate  Elizabethan 
architecture  with  the  Renaissance  of  Italy.  There  is  neither 
the  spirit  nor  the  intelligence  expressed  in  the  Italian  style, 
but  there  is  a  charm  and  simplicity  about  it  that  renders  the 
Elizabethan  mansion  unique  and  characteristically  English. 
As  the  majority  of  the  great  families  lived  in  {he  country, 
their  homes  were  enhanced  by  the  simple  rural  surroundings, 
gardens,  terraces,  and  exterior  adjuncts  that  contribute  to 
the  establishment  of  the  perfect  country  seat. 

With  the  Anglo-Classic  period  came  the  days  of  Italian 
books,  study,  and  travel.  English  architects  studied  in  Italy 
and  in  France.  The  distinctive  English  characteristics  of 
suitability  and  unpretentiousness  gave  way  to  complication 
of  plan  and  elaboration  of  exterior  in  order  to  display 
the  classic  details.  Much  was  planned  for  show  and  little 
for  comfort. 

The  Classic  Revival  period  was  similar  to  the  Empire 
period  in  France,  when  Greek  and  Pompeian  ideas  super- 
seded the  Roman  orders  and  details.  Libraries,  museums, 
galleries,  banks,  etc.  were  designed,  but  appeared  to  be 
Greek  temples  and  tombs.  These  incongruities  rendered 
the  style  short  lived,  and  many  designers  abandoned  the 
classic  and  endeavored  to  institute  a  revival  of  the  Gothic. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  301 


ANALYTICAL   STUDY 


PLANS 

169.  The  Renaissance  in  England  presents  practical 
designs  in  house  planning  with  consideration  for  the  com- 
forts and  conveniences  of  the  occupants;  and  from  the 
Elizabethan  plan  have  been  derived  many  details  that 
characterize  the  homes  of  the  present  day. 

Two  types  of  plan  were  adopted  at  this  time — one,  where 
a  long  hall  connected  the  kitchen  and  offices  at  one  end  of 
the  building  with  the  living  room  at  the  other  end,  and  the 
other  where  the  plan  was  quadrangular,  with  a  central  court, 
as  in  the  middle  ages.  The  latter  plan  was  improved  by 
the  omission  of  the  buildings  on  one  side,  thus  converting  it 
into  an  E  shape,  as  at  Hatfield  House,  Fig.  60,  History  of 
Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  3.  Later,  the  wings  were 
extended  on  each  side  and  the  plan  became  H-shaped. 

The  principal  details  of  the  plan  were  the  great  hall 
— inherited  from  the  medieval  period — which  was  usuaJly 
wainscoted  in  oak  nearly  to  the  ceiling;  the  minstrel  gallery, 
which  was  located  at  one  end  of  the  hall,  above  a  tall  oak 
screen;  the  dais,  or  raised  platform,  which  was  enclosed  in  a 
bay  window  whose  sill  came  nearly  to  the  floor;  and  the 
great-hall  fireplace  with  elaborately  carved  coat  of  arms  of 
the  owner.  The  staircase  was  also  an  important  detail  in 
all  Elizabethan  mansions.  It  was  designed  with  heavy 
newels,  pierced  balustrades,  and  richly  carved  details.  It 
owed  its  prominence  to  the  fact  that  many  of  the  most 
important  rooms  were  on  the  second  floor  and  therefore 
demanded  a  monumental  means  of  approach.  Another 
characteristic  detail  of  the  Elizabethan  house  was  the  long 
gallery,  as  shown  in  Fig.  61  (a).  This  gallery  was  usually 
located  in  an  upper  story  and  often  extended  the  full  length 
of  the  house.  The  side  walls  were  paneled  and  the  ceilings 
were  richly  decorated  in  plaster  ornament. 


PLAN  OF  SECOND  HjOOfc  OFHAkDWICK  HALL 


100  Ffc. 


SCALE 
(a) 


PLAN   OF 

CASTLE  HOWARD 

YORKSHIRE,  ENGLAND. 


iff  TV  i  |N  of    A|P  A|R  r! M  U  TN  !r! 


(ft) 


BLENHEIM  PALACE 
WOODSTOCK.  ENGLAND 


I  L  T  303—39 


304 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§51 


TVAL.T.S 

170.  The  elevations  were  freely  treated,  with  the  classic 
orders  used  in  a  rather  grotesque  form  and  interspersed  with 
much  intricate  ornament  of  either  Flemish  or  German  origin. 
The  tower  of  the  Old  Schools  at  Oxford,  Fig.  62,  erected 
about  1612,  presents  a  unique  example  in  which  all  the  five 
orders  are  introduced. 
These  columns  are 
superposed  one  over 
another,  with  the  Tus- 
can at  the  bottom  and 
the  composite  at  the 
top.  The  gables,  or 
pediments,  consist  of 
scrollwork  combina- 
tions, somewhat  after 
those  of  Holland,  but 
with  much  pierced 
screen  work  and  bal- 
ustrades. At  a  later 
period,  the  classic  pedi- 
ment was  used  more 
intelligently,  and  over 
the  gate  of  Caius  Col- 
lege, Fig.  63,  erected 
in  the  years  1665  to 
1674,  are  found  a  tetra- 
style  portico  used  as  a 
decorative  wall  detail. 

The  chimneys  were  a  characteristic  feature,  sometimes 
being  elaborately  treated  with  orders  and  at  other  times 
carried  up  in  cut  brickwork,  thus  playing  an  important  part 
in  the  sky  line  of  the  roof.  Where  battlements  surmounted 
the  walls  in  the  Gothic  period,  parapets  are  now  found 
pierced  with  elaborate  fretwork  and  scrollwork  designs,  or 
arranged  with  balustrades  and  pilasters  or  with  newels. 


FIG.  63 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  305 


ROOFS 

171.  The  roofs  were  both  high  in  pitch,  after  the  Gothic 
model,  and  low  and  flat,  after  the  classic  style.  They  were 
covered  with  either  lead  or  tile,  and  in  some  districts,  with 
stone  slabs.  In  nearly  every  case,  the  roofs  were  surrounded 
by  the  characteristic  pierced  balustrades.  The  gables  took 
fantastic  forms,  with  curved  or  stepped  outlines,  as  in  Holland. 


COLUMNS 

172,  The  columns   are   founded  on  classic  orders,  but 
with  a  great  variety  of  treatment.     They  frequently  tapered 
toward  the  base,  without  entasis,  and  sometimes  they  were 
designed  with  bulbous  swelling,  somewhat  after  the  classic 
balustrades.     Pilasters    flanking    window   openings    were    a 
prominent  detail  on  the  exterior.     These  were  paneled  and 
decorated  in  strapwork    ornament   or  sometimes  fluted  as 
in  Italy.  . 

OPENINGS 

173.  The  cheapness  of  glass  rendered  large  square  win- 
dows   an    important   feature    and   these  were   flanked  with 
pilasters  so  as  to  emphasize  the  structural  character  of  the 
opening,  whereas  in  Italian  work  the  pilaster  was  used  on 
the    exterior    simply    to    subdivide    the    wall    surface.     See 
Fig.  16.     Bay  windows  were  a  prominent  feature,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  plans  shown  in  Fig.  61.     Large,  mullion  win- 
dows with  transoms  are  as  characteristic  as  they  were  in  the 
Late  Gothic  period.     The  doorways  were  elaborately  studied, 
with  the  orders  carried  above  them  several  stories,  as  in  the 
Old  Schools  at  Oxford,  Fig.  62. 


MOLDINGS 

174.  The  moldings  are  coarse  and  crudely  carved,  but 
are  based  on  classic  models.  The  characteristic  cornice 
consists  of  a  large  cyma  supported  on  a  small  ogee,  over  a 
rather  shallow  corona. 


FIG. 


218-T  L  T  101     §  51 


Fin.  64 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  307 


ORNAMENT 

175.  The  characteristic  ornament  of  this  period  consists 
of  a  strapwork  design  interlaced  with  scrolls  and  grotesque 
patterns,  as  shown  in  Fig.  64,  which  were  apparently  secured 
to  the  ornamented  surface  by  square-headed  nails  or  rivets. 
This  style  of  decorative  treatment  was  used  on  pilasters, 
panels,  spandrels,  etc.,  and  even  pierced  through  parapets 
to  form  a  sort  of  openwork  balustrade,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  65  (a).  Grotesque  figures  were  used  on  newels  and 
as  terminals  to  supports,  instead  of  regularly  molded 
columns  and  capitals  as  in  (/).  Some  columns  were  rusti- 
cated by  the  introduction  of  prismatic  forms  that  were 
either  carved  in  the  shaft  or  inserted  in  colored  stones,  as 
in  (d).  Plaster  was  run  in  molded  panels  for  ceilings,  and 
considerable  richness  of  design  resulted  from  this  treatment. 
Pyramidal  finials  were  carried  on  pedestals  over  screens  and 
bays,  as  in  (b),  and  molded  strapwork  filled  the  spandrels, 
as  in  (d).  Bay  and  oriole  windows  characterized  the  exterior 
walls  of  the  residences,  as  in  (c)  and  (<?),  and  the  chimney 
stacks  were  carried  high  above  the  parapet  walls  and  battle- 
ments in  octagonal  prisms. 

The  details  of  ornament  shown  in  Figs.  64  and  65  can  be 
classified  as  Renaissance  on  account  of  their  historic  period 
rather  than  on  account  of  their  classic  spirit.  England  was 
not  in  harmony  with  the  Italian  movement  and  borrowed 
many  of  her  ideas  from  Holland,  which,  being  a  Protestant 
country,  was  more  in  sympathy  with  the  English  church. 
The  Gothic  ornament,  which  was  the  expression  of  true 
structural  conditions,  still  influenced  the  English  style  as  to 
form,  but  the  Elizabethan  ornamentation  was  independent  of 
construction  even  when  based  on  Gothic  types.  The  lath- 
and-plaster  vaults  of  the  Italian  corridors,  and  the  deeply 
coffered  ceilings  with  plaster  beams  and  ornament,  influenced 
England  only  so  far  as  material  was  concerned,  but  until  the 
Anglo-Classic  period,  when  direct  study  of  the  Italian  forms 
led  to  their  better  appreciation,  the  ornament  of  the  English 
Renaissance  was  meaningless  and  superficial. 


308  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


ELIZABETHAN  PERIOD 

176.  Although  50  years  later  in  date,  the  Elizabethan 
style  in  England  corresponded  with  the  Francis  I  period  in 
France,  inasmuch  as  it  was  the  transition  style  from  the  old 
to  the  new  forms.     During  the  reigns  of  Henry  VII  and 
Henry  VIII,  the  Gothic  style  was  on  the  decline,  and  with 
the  Reformation  came  the  desire  for  the  new  forms,  which 
were  grafted  on  the  Gothic  constructions  without  consider- 
ation for  their  classic  purposes.     The  new  forms  that  were 
revolutionizing  architectural  design  in  other  countries  were 
essentially  Italian,  and  to  the  English  reformers  anything 
that  was  Italian  was  a  reminder  of  the  Roman  church.     The 
Elizabethan    architects   therefore   endeavored   to   introduce 
forms  that  were  not  directly  of  Italian  origin,  or  that  were 
so  modified  that  all  associations  with  the  unpopular  religion 
were    eliminated.     The   Renaissance  details  of    Italy  were 
therefore    scorned   as   Catholic,  but  their  modifications  as 
found   in   Holland   and   France   were    adapted    to    English 
conditions. 

The  most  important  examples  of  the  Elizabethan  period 
are  country  houses;  and  landscape  gardening  thus  became 
a  distinctive  feature  of  the  style.  The  structural  details  so 
characteristic  of  the  Gothic  were  long  retained;  hence,  many 
uses  were  made  of  the  tower,  the  bartizan,  the  oriole  win- 
dow, the  mullioned  bay,  etc.  The  Elizabethan  style  not  only 
applied  Italian  architectural  forms  to  English  Gothic  construc- 
tions, but  also  borrowed  ornament  for  the  same  purpose  from 
all  the  ornamental  arts  in  furniture  decoration,  etc. 

177.  As  classic  literature  and   models   became   better 
known  and  the  use  of  the  orders  became  more  general,  the 
style  developed  toward  a  crude  classicism,  sometimes  termed 
the  Jacobean  period,  as  it  was  identified  with  the  reign  of 
James  I,  who  succeeded  Elizabeth.     The  planning  remains 
about  the  same,  but  the  ornamentation  and  furniture  intro- 
duced all  sorts  of  grotesque  absurdities  that  never  found  a 
place  in  classic  art. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  309 


ANGL.O-CL.AS8IC    PERIOD 

178.  The   Anglo-Classic  period  extends  from   1625  to 
1702,    and    includes    the    reigns    of    Charles    I,    Cromwell, 
Charles    II,  James   II,  and  William   and  Mary.     As   in   the 
Italian   school,   the   classic   period   of    English   Renaissance 
was   popularized   by  the   work  of  individual   architects,  the 
first  of  whom  were  Inigo  Jones  and  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 
Inigo    Jones    took    a    long    course    of    study    at    Vicenza, 
Palladio's  native  town.     Palladio  was  the  favorite  master  of 
Jones,   and   the   works   of   this   Italian  architect  had  much 
influence  on  the  designs  executed  in  England  after  Jones 
returned. 

The  greatest  undertaking  of  Inigo  Jones  was  the  design 
for  Whitehall,  the  royal  palace  at  London.  This  was  one  of 
the  grandest  conceptions  of  the  Renaissance,  but  only  the 
banquet  hall  was  ever  built.  The  plan,  Fig.  66  (a),  was 
arranged  around  courtyards,  one  of  which  was  to  be  circular 
and  surrounded  by  a  peristyle,  and  the  great  central  court 
would  have  equaled  that  of  the  Louvre.  The  banquet  hall, 
Fig.  67,  is  certainly  as  dignified  a  composition  as  will  be 
found  in  the  English  Renaissance.  It  was  treated  as  a  t\vo- 
story  structure  on  the  exterior,  while  the  single  room  it 
consisted  of  was  two  stories  high,  with  a  balcony  on  the 
interior  from  which  the  second-story  windows  opened. 

179.  Sir  Christopher  Wren  was   a  mathematician,  and 
his  early  training  fitted  him   for  the   great  structural  prob- 
lems that  he  solved  in  his  latter  works.     He  did  not  possess 
an  architectural  education  equal  to  the  one  that  Jones  had 
received  in  Italy,  but  he  studied  the  art  in  France  while  the 
Louvre   was    undergoing    reconstruction,   and   all  his   work 
shows  the  influence  of  the  French  school  quite  as  strongly 
as  the  work  of  Jones  shows  the  Italian  style.     This  is  par- 
ticularly evident  in  the  decorative  detail.      Wren  probably 
built  more  churches  than  any  other  architect. 

The  great  fire  of  London,  which  occurred  in  1666,  destroyed 
89  churches  and  over  13,000  houses  in  less  than  a  week. 


PLAN  OF  WHITEHALL  PALACE  LONDON 


GRAND  COURT 
400  Ft.  X  800  Ft. 


PUN  OF 

ST.PAUIS  CATHEDRAL 

AS  ORIGINALLY  DESIGNED 


FIG.  66 


310 


312 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§51 


Before  the  embers  were  cold,  Wren  set  before  the  king  a 
scheme  for  the  restoration  of  the  city.  The  plan  was  not 
accepted,  but  Wren  rebuilt  52  churches,  including  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral. 


WEST  ELEVATION 

ST.PAUL'S  CATHEDRAL 
LONDON 


FIG.  68 

180.  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.— St.  Paul's  was  Wren's 
masterpiece,  and  ranks  with  the  finest  Renaissance  cathe- 
drals in  Europe.  His  first  plan,  Fig.  66  (6),  presented  a 
Greek  cross  with  an  extended  west  arm  laid  out  with  geo- 
metrical precision.  The  clergy,  however,  objected  to  this, 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  313 

as  it  was  a  digression  from  the  medieval  style  of  planning. 
Wren  then  made  a  plan  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross,  Fig.  66  (c) , 
with  the  great  central  space  at  the  crossing  crowned  by  a  dome 
of  magnificent  proportions,  as  shown  in  Fig.  68. 

The  exterior  of  St.  Paul's  is  designed  in  two  stories,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  68,  the  upper  one  being  a  mere  screen  to  hide 
the  buttresses  and  clearstory,  as  shown  in  Fig.  69  (a),  which 
is  a  transverse  section  across  the  nave — a  deception  that 
illustrates  the  impracticability  of  the  classic  decoration  on 
the  Gothic  construction.  If  the  buttresses  had  been  per- 
mitted to  show  on  the  exterior,  they  would  have  been 
incongruous  with  the  classic  detail;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
had  the  roof  been  constructed  according  to  the  Roman 
methods,  the  building  would  have  been  ill  suited  to  the 
purposes  of  a  Christian  church. 

181.  The  most  important  feature  of  the  design  is  the 
dome  over  the  rotunda.  This  detail  is  also  an  architectural 
deception  practiced  to  heighten  the  effect  of  the  design  on 
the  exterior.  If  the  dome  were  hemispherical  and  poised 
directly  over  the  vault  of  the  nave,  as  in  the  Byzantine 
churches,  it  would  have  added  dignity  to  the  interior  without 
being  at  all  visible  on  the  exterior.  Had  it  been  designed 
to  suit  the  exigencies  of  the  exterior  design,  it  would  have 
appeared  strangely  lofty  and  out  of  place  from  within. 
Therefore,  in  order  to  reconcile  these  two  conditions,  Sir 
Christopher  built  a  dome  over  the  rotunda  to  secure  the 
desired  interior  effect,  as  shown  at  a,  Fig.  69  (b);  around 
the  circumference,  and  independent  of  this  dome,  he  con- 
structed a  conical  brick  roof  b,  on  top  of  which  is  supported 
the  stone  lantern  c,  and  around  the  sides  of  which  a  wooden 
dome  d  is  built  entirely  for  exterior  effect.  This  exterior 
dome,  rising  from  a  high  drum  surrounded  by  a  peristyle  of 
Corinthian  columns,  gives  to  the  design  an  expression  of 
dignity  and  majesty  that  would  otherwise  be  entirely  lack- 
ing; while  the  campaniles,  or  bell  towers,  and  the  two-story 
porch  on  the  west  front  combine  in  an  admirable  grouping 
with  the  dome  itself. 


314 


§51 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


315 


182.  Clmrcli  of  St.  Mary  le  Bow. — Wren's  smaller 
churches  were  well  studied  in  plan  and  detail.  It  may  be 
said  that  he  of  all  architects  was  most  successful  in  applying 
classic  details  to  spires.  His  best  work  in  this  particular 


LONDON 


CHURCH  OFST.BK1DE 
LONDON 


FIG.  70 


was  the  church  of  St.  Mary  le  Bow,  Fig.  70.  The  tower  is 
rectangular  in  plan  to  a  height  of  112  feet,  and  is  then  sur- 
mounted by  a  circular  peristyle  supporting  inverted  consoles 
under  the  lantern.  The  diminution  in  size  as  the  spire  rises 


FIG.  71 


FIG.  72 


316 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  317 

is  admirable,  and  the  inverted  consoles  give  a  variety  to  the 
outline  that  could  have  been  attained  in  no  other  way. 

183.  Church  of  St.  Bride. — Another  unique  design  of 
Sir  Christopher's  is  the  little  church  of  St.  Bride,  Fig.  70. 
Here,  the  square  tower  is  carried  up  to  a  height  of  123  feet, 
and  the  diminution  of  the  spire  is  effected  by  a  series  of  five 
decreasing  arcades  supporting  a  cone. 

184.  Other  Examples  by  Wren. — Besides  the  churches 
that  he  built,  Wren  was  called  on  to  design  more  royal  pal- 
aces than  any  other  architect,  before  or  since  his  day,  but  in 
this  field  he  did  not  meet  with  the  success  that  crowned  the 
majority  of  his  ecclesiastical  designs. 

The  palace  at  Winchester  was  little  more  than  a  big  brick 
barrack,  to  which  purpose  it  has  since  most  appropriately 
been  applied.  He  was  more  successful  with  Hampton 
Court,  though  the  design  shows  a  want  of  proper  study. 
The  architectural  orders  are  plastered  on  simply  as  exterior 
ornaments,  and  the  entire  fagade  is  tame  and  meaningless. 
Chelsea  College  is  probably  the  poorest  design  bearing 
Wren's  name  ever  erected,  but  he  partly  redeemed  his  fame 
in  the  one  at  Greenwich,  though  this  is  not  up  to  his  standard. 

When  Sir  Christopher  Wren  died,  in  1723,  he  was  suc- 
ceeded both  in  practice  and  position  by  Nicholas  Hawksmoor 
and  Sir  John  Vanbrugh.  The  former  was  a  pupil  of  Wren's, 
and  was  employed  to  carry  out  a  great  deal  of  his  work. 

185.  Works  of  Vanbrugh. — The  works  of  Sir  John 
Vanbrugh  are   all    expressive    of    his    one    aim  and  desire, 
namely,    to   express   in    design    a   feeling  of    grandeur  and 
eternity.     Had  his  efforts  been  devoted  to  mausoleums  and 
monumental  structures,  he  might  have  made  much  more  of 
a  success;  but  as  his  productions  were  almost  entirely  pal- 
aces and  villas,  his  energy  was  spent  in  the  wrong  direction. 
Blenheim  Palace,  Fig.  71,  Castle  Howard,  Fig.  72,  Seaton- 
Delaval,  and  Grimsthorpe  all  bear  the  stamp  of  his  ambition. 

186.  Blenheim  was  to  Sir  John  what  St.  Paul's  was  to 
Wren — the  opportunity  of  his  lifetime,  by  which  he  would  be 


318 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


51 


judged  and  with  which  his  name  would  be  handed  down  to 
posterity.  To  build  a  monumental  palace  in  a  noble  park  on 
such  a  scale,  and  to  be  backed  by  the  nation's  purse,  was  in 
reality  a  greater  opportunity  than  Wren  had  before  him 
when  he  built  a  metropolitan  cathedral,  hampered  by  liturgic 
difficulties  and  jealous  criticisms. 

Nothing  can  well  be  grander  than  Sir  John's  plan  and  gen- 
eral conception  of  Blenheim  Castle,  as  shovm  in  Fig.  61  (c). 
The  garden  front,  323  feet  in  length,  was  flanked  on  one 
side  by  the  private  apartments  and  on  the  other  by  a 


FIG.  73 

magnificent  library  182  feet  from  front  to  rear.  In  designing 
the  fagade,  he  carefully  avoided  all  the  faults  of  Versailles, 
which  was  the  typical  palace  of  the  day,  as  well  as  the  tame- 
ness  that  was  the  feature  of  Winchester  and  Hampton  Court. 

187.  Castle  Howard,  Fig.  72,  was  erected  by  Vanbrugh 
about  the  same  time  as  Blenheim.     It  is  similar  in  plan  to 
Blenheim,  but  much  smaller,  though  his  skilful  .treatment  of 
the  fagade  has  made  it  appear  much  larger  than  it  really  is. 

188.  Somerset    House. — Somerset    House,    Fig.    73, 
erected  by  Sir  William   Chambers  toward  the  end  of  the 
18th   century,   was    a    very    successful   design,    though   far 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


319 


beyond  the  ability  of  the  architect.  The  bold,  rusticated 
basement  supports  a  range  of  three-quarter  Corinthian 
columns,  and  a  well-proportioned  balustrade  surmounts  the 
whole  in  a  pleasing  and  artistic  manner. 


FIG.  74 

189.     CUiii'di  of  St.  Martin.— The  church  of  St.  Martin 

in  the  Fields,  Fig.  74,  by  James  Gibbs,  shows  the  growing 
tendency  toward  the  complete  revival  of  classic  forms. 
Were  it  not  for  the  tower  and  spire  this  structure  might 
readily  pass  for  an  amphiprostyle  Corinthian  temple.  The 
plan  is  rectangular  with  a  projecting  portico  at  each  end. 

I  L  T  303—40 


320  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

The  entablature  is  carried  entirely  around  the  building,  being 
supported  by  pilasters  at  the  sides.  The  spire  is  pleasingly 
proportioned  and  is  octagonal  in  plan,  springing  from  the 
top  of  a  square  tower.  

REVIEW    EXERCISES 

1.  What  contrasting  influences  did  England's  geographical  posi- 
tion have  on  her  Gothic  and  Renaissance  architecture? 

2.  Describe  briefly  what  religious  influences  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  great  English  manor  houses. 

3.  What    foreign    artists    and    architects    influenced    the    English 
Renaissance? 

4.  What  was  the  most  progressive  period  of   the    English    Ren- 
aissance? 

5.  What    are    the    distinguishing    characteristics    of    Elizabethan 
architecture? 

6.  Describe  the  characteristics  of   English   Renaissance   ornament 
and  illustrate  by  sketches,  if  necessary. 

7.  (a)  What  two  native  architects  developed  the  Renaissance  in 
England?     (b)  What  were  the  chief  works  of  each? 

8.  What  religious  conditions  checked  the  force  of  Italian  influence 
in  English  architecture  at  the  beginning  of  the   Elizabethan  period? 

9.  (a)  What  sovereigns  ruled  in  England  from  the  middle  of  the 
13th  to  the  end  of  the  17th  centuries?     (b)  Which  of  these  favored  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  which  supported  the  Church  of  England? 

10.  What  two  men  succeeded   Sir  Christopher   Wren  as   leading 
architects  of  the  period? 


51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  321 


CHARACTERISTICS 

190.  The  essential  difference  between  the  architecture 
of  the  Renaissance  and  that  of  the  Revival  period  may  be 
defined  as  follows:     The  former  was  the  adoption  of  classic 
Roman  details  to  modern  forms,  while   the  latter  required 
the  complete  subjugation  of  modern  forms  and  necessities 
to  accommodate  the  plan  and  arrangements  of  a  Greek  or  a 
Roman  temple.     Although  classic  details  only  were  used  in 
St.  Peter's  and  St.  Paul's,  these  structures  would  never  be 
taken  for   anything  but  Christian  churches.     Whitehall  and 
Versailles  were  the  residences   of   the  kings  of  the  age  in 
which   they   were   built,    and   pretend   to   be    nothing  more. 
No  one  could  think  of  St.  Peter's  as  a  Roman  temple,  and 
Versailles  is  as  unlike  the  palace  of  the  Caesars  as  a  building 
possibly  could  be,   and  so   it   occurs   throughout   the   three 
centuries  during  which  Renaissance  was  practiced.     But,  the 
Walhalla,  at  Ratisbon,  pretends  to  be  an  exact  reproduction 
of  the   Parthenon,  and  the  Madeline,  at   Paris,  is  intended 
to  be  the  counterpart  of  a   Roman-Corinthian   temple.     St. 
George's  Hall,  Liverpool,  is  supposed  to  contain  no  feature 
later  than  the  age  of  Augustus.     Thus  the  early  years  of  the 
19th  century  were  the  beginning  of  a  period  of  architectural 
slavery  never  before  equaled.    Architects  no  longer  required 
originality,  and  the  one  that  possessed  it  was  supposed  to  sup- 
press it  entirely  and  to  reproduce  some  pagan  building,  line 
for  line,  fitting  his  purpose  to  the  classic  form  the  best  way 
he  could,  regardless  of  convenience,  character,  or  tradition. 

191.  In  Italy,  there  was,  strictly  speaking,  no  Classic 
Revival,  as  the  Renaissance  so  thoroughly  suited  the  tastes 
and  requirements  of  the  people  that  there  was  no  demand 


322  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

for  a  change.  In  France,  the  frivolous  designs  and  details 
of  the  period  of  Louis  XV  had  become  tiresome,  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  country  had  so  increased  that  the  public 
impression  seemed  to  be  that  the  empire  of  France  was  to 
be  the  successor  of  that  of  ancient  Rome.  Severity  and 
dignity  of  design,  rather  than  delicacy  and  frivolity,  was 
therefore  demanded,  and  the  duplication,  line  for  line,  of 
Roman  temples  was  the  method  of  its  accomplishment. 

In  Germany,  however,  the  Renaissance  style  had  been 
such  a  failure  that  the  country  was  not  inclined  to  adopt 
any  more  Roman  forms,  and  an  adoption  of  purely  Greek 
designs  was  substituted;  while  in  England,  the  influence  of 
Palladio  during  the  Renaissance  was  still  sufficient  to  modify 
the  style  when  Great  Britain  adopted  the  Greek  Revival. 

The  effect  of  this  revival  in  all  countries  was  to  increase 
the  dignity  and  monumental  effect  of  the  streets  at  the 
expense  of  the  convenience  and  practicability  of  the  plans. 
Public  squares  and  parks,  surrounded  by  colonnaded  build- 
ings and  deep  porticos,  were  very  fine  to  look  at,  but  the 
porches  and  colonnades  darkened  the  buildings  and  rendered 
them  unfit  for  the  purpose  of  their  erection. 

The  Classic  Revival  period  might  be  considered  the  result 
of  too  much  education.  Previous  to  the  Renaissance  there 
had  been  no  general  learning,  and  art  forms  had  developed 
naturally  from  the  constructive  principles  of  the  works  in 
hand.  There  was  but  one  general  style  available  and  this  was 
based  upon  the  fundamental  principle  of  construction.  The 
architecture  of  the  castle  was  far  different  from  the  architec- 
ture of  the  cathedral,  yet  both  were  unmistakably  Gothic. 

With  the  Renaissance  came  the  knowledge  of  a  highly 
refined  civilization.  Buildings  were  erected  with  the  old 
scientific  construction,  but  the  new  classic  ornament  was 
used  to  embellish  the  structural  features.  Then  architects 
traveled  from  all  parts  of  Europe  to  study  in  Rome  and  build- 
ings were  embellished  with  complete  Roman  orders  instead 
of  fragments  of  classic  ornament.  Later,  architectural  stu- 
dents returned  with  actual  measured  drawings  of  existing 
buildings,  and  architecture  fell  from  a  fine  art  to  an  imitation. 


§51 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


523 


CLASSIC   REVIVAL,  IN   FUANCE 

192.  In  France,  the  Classic  Revival  made  its  appearance 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI,  and  the  tendency  toward  it 
can  be  seen  even  before  that.  The  Hotel  des  Invalides, 
Figs.  45  and  7G  (a),  erected  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV, 
shows  nothing  but  the  most  servile  imitation  of  Roman 
forms,  but  at  the  same  time  admits  the  necessity  of 
windows,  which  are  grouped  to  harmonize,  with  the  design. 


103.      Clmrcli    of    St.    Cciicvicvc,   or  Pantlicoii. — In 

the  Pantheon,  at  Paris,  Fig.  75,  however,  we  see  a  noble 
building  architecturally  asserting  itself  to  be  a  Roman 
temple,  when,  as  a  matter  of  truth,  it  is  a  Christian  church 
dedicated  to  St.  Genevieve.  In  plan,  Fig.  7G,  this  structure 
presents  a  Greek  cross  3G2  feet  long  and  2G7  feet  wide,  over 
the  intersection  of  the  arms  of  which  rises  a  dome  that  is 
265  feet  in  height  and  69  feet  in  diameter.  The  whole 


324 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


51 


exterior,  as  shown  in  Fig.  77,  is  a  cold,  severe,  but  extremely 
refined,  composition.  The  elegant  portico  of  colossal  Cor- 
inthian columns,  and  the  fine  peristyle  around  the  drum  of 
the  dome,  combine  to  characterize  the  design  as  one  of 
great  dignity  and  effect.  The  sides  are  plain  wall  surfaces, 


HOTEL  DES  IN  VAUDf 5 


FIG.  76 


unbroken  by  window  openings  or  carved  ornaments,  except 
the  festoons  along  the  frieze  under  the  cornice.  Light  is 
admitted  through  the  roof,  the  greatest  care  and  ingenuity 
having  been  exercised  to  hide  the  fact  that  interior  illumina- 
tion of  the  edifice  was  necessary. 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


327 


194.  The  Madeline  at  Paris.— The  Madeline,  Fig.  78, 
is  even  more  extreme  in  the  effort  to  depict  a  purely  pagan 
design  than  is  the  Pantheon.  Here,  there  is  what  appears 
to  be  a  Roman-Corinthian  peristylar  temple,  every  line  of 
which  is  carefully  proportioned  according  to  classic  antece- 
dents, though  its  purpose  is  to  provide  a  place  for  Christian 
worship.  Classic  as  this  structure  may  appear  in  design,  it 


is  certainly  not  so  in  construction.  Each  column  is  built  up 
of  small  pieces  of  stone.,  the  joints  of  which  materially  inter- 
fere with  the  effect  of  the  fluting.  The  lintels  that  span  the 
intercolumniations  of  the  peristyle  are  not  single  stone 
beams  as  in  the  temples  of  Rome  and  Greece,  but  are  con- 
structed of  voussoirs,  like  a  flat  arch.  In  ancient  columnar 
architecture  the  spacing  of  the  columns  was  governed  by  the 
length  of  lintel  that  could  be  conveniently  quarried;  hence, 


328  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

the  intercolumniations  were  comparatively  small.  In  the 
Madeline,  the  intercolumniations  afe  still  maintained  accord- 
ing to  the  ancient  standard,  though  there  is  no  structural 
necessity  for  it.  However,  the  Parisians  desired  their  city 
to  be  a  second  Rome,  and  in  order  to  carry  out  the  appear- 
ance, they  confined  their  architectural  designs  to  the  dupli- 
cation of  Roman  edifices  of  historical  renown. 

195.  Arch  du  Carrousel. — The  effort  to  make  Paris  a 
second  Rome  was  not  confined  to  architecture  entirely,  but 
the  manners,  customs,  and  even  the  dress  of  the  people 
were  as  close  an  imitation  of  the  days  of  ancient  Rome  as 
the  climatic  and  geographical  conditions  would  permit. 

Streets  and  public  squares  were  embellished  with  col- 
umns of  victory  and  triumphal  arches,  and  statues  of  heroes 
adorned  the  parks.  The  Arch  du  Carrousel,  Fig.  79,  was 
erected  to  commemorate  the  triumphs  of  Napoleon  in  the 
campaigns  of  1806.  It  stands  at  the  head  of  the  Avenue 
Champs  Elysees,  the  finest  and  most  monumental  thorough- 
fare in  Paris,  and  in  the  center  of  the  outer  court  of  the 
Louvre  Palace.  (See  Fig.  87.)  At  the  opposite  end  of  the 
Avenue  Champs  Elysees,  two  miles  distant,  stands  another 
memorial  arch  160  feet  in  height  and  elaborately  sculptured 
with  characteristic  and  symbolic  groups  of  figures.  In  the 
Palace  Vendome,  not  far  from  the  Louvre,  stands  a  column 
140  feet  in  height,  carved  in  low  relief,  commemorating 
Napoleon's  campaigns  in  1805.  It  is  similar  to  Trojan's 
column  in  Rome,  Fig.  86,  History  of  Architecture  and  Orna- 
ment, Part  1.  Numerous  other  monuments  of  a  similar 
character  were  erected  at  later  dates  throughout  Paris,  most 
of  which  were  of  Roman  rather  than  Greek  model,  as  the 
empire  of  Napoleon  was  overthrown  in  1815  and  the  mon- 
archy restored. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  329 

CLASSIC  REVIVAL  IN  GERMANY 

196.  In  Germany,  the  Classic  Revival  wasted  little  time 
on  Roman  forms.     This  was  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  the 
Renaissance  had  been  so  misunderstood,  and  partly  to  the 
inappropriate    associations'  of    Roman  pomp  and  splendor 
with    Germany's    condition    of    finances.     The    long    war 
between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants  in  the  17th  century 
had  nearly  ruined  Germany,  while  it  had  caused  France  to 
become  the  leading  nation  of  Europe;  and  the  next  hundred 
years  added  but  little  to  Germany's  interests,  while  France 
continued  to  grow  in  power. 

The  German's  taste  then  inclined  to  quiet  and  retiring 
ideas,  and  the  recently  discovered  art  treasures  of  Greece 
appealed  strongly  to  his  instincts.  The  literary  works  of 
the  German  poets,  Lessing,  Goethe,  and  others,  diverted 
the  public  mind  to  the  study  of  Greek  art,  and  the  discov- 
eries of  Stuart  and  Revett,  and  their  publication  of  the 
"Antiquities  of  Athens,"  gave  the  contemporary  architects 
models  by  which  to  be  governed. 

197.  The  Wallialla. — In  this  period  Leo  von  Klenze 
erected,  at  Ratisbon,  a  monumental  structure  known  as  the 
Walhalla,    which    was    exteriorly    an    exact    model    of    the 
Parthenon,    two-thirds    the    dimensions    of    the    original    at 
Athens.     This  architect  saved  himself  an  immense  amount 
of  responsibility  by  copying  so   celebrated  a  building,  and 
while  praise  may  be  due  him  for  the  accuracy  of  the  repro- 
duction, he  is  certainly  deserving  of  the  most  severe  criticism 
for  the  erection  of  so  classic  an  edifice  on  a  lone  hill,  where 
its  sole  surroundings  are  the  high  roofs  and  slender  spires 
of  the  German  villages. 

198.  The  Ruhmeshalle. — The  Ruhmeshalle,  at  Munich, 
Fig.  80,  is  E-shaped  in  plan,  with  a  colossal  statue  of  Bavaria 
occupying  the  central  portion.     It  was  erected  to  contain  the 
statues  of  Bavaria's  great  men,  and  was  dedicated  to  their 
memory.     Although  it  was  not  copied  after  any  Greek  build- 
ing, it  is  purely  Greek  in  design  and  is  correct  in  form  and 


FIG.  80 


FIG.  81 


330 


§51 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


331 


propoition  clown  to  the  smallest  detail.  It  forms  a  fitting 
background,  and  adds  dignity  to  the  colossal  figure  in  front, 
without  appearing  unsuited  to  its  surroundings,  as  did  the 
Walhalla  as  just  stated. 

199.  The  Glyptotliek. — The  Glyptothek,  or  sculpture 
gallery,  at  Munich,  Fig.  81,  was  designed  by  the  same  archi- 
tect as  the  Walhalla.  Though  not  a  servile  copy  like  the 
former  structure,  its  most  original  feature,  the  Ionic  portico, 


FIG.  82 

is  its  strongest  defect,  being  out  of  proportion  and  distinctly 
unrelated  to  the  detail  of  the  surrounding  parts. 

200.  City  Gate  at  Munich. — In  the  city  gate  of  Munich, 
Fig.  82,  Von  Klenze  was  much  more  successful.  The  somber 
dignity  of  the  Grecian-Doric  order  appears  well  suited  to  the 
purpose  of  this  structure,  and  seems  to  have  been  well 
understood  in  principle  by  the  architect.  The  design,  though 
thoroughly  Greek  in  spirit,  is  at  the  same  time  sufficiently 
modern  to  prevent  the  feeling  that  the  intent  and  purpose 


332 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§51 


of  the  monument  has  been  in  any  degree  sacrificed  in  order 
to  suit  the  conditions  imposed  by  the  style. 

201.  Parliament  Houses  at  Vienna. — The  parlia- 
ment houses  at  Vienna,  Fig.  83,  unites  with  a  dignified 
composition  of  pilasters  and  entablatures  supported  on  a 
substantial  base,  a  caryatid  portico  that  in  no  way  har- 
monizes with  the  rest  of  the  design. 


FIG.  83 

202.  The  Greek  Revival  in  Germany  presents  the  aspect 
of  a  sincere  striving  for  beauty  on  the  part  of  a  few  talented 
architects,  who  labored  under  the  false  impression  that  the 
forms  and  details  of  an  ancient  and  extinct  civilization  were 
suitable  to  the  conditions  of  society  as  it  existed  at  the  close 
of  the  18th  century.  The  period  is  marked  by  examples  of 
excellent  planning,  admirable  construction,  and  most  care- 
fully studied  detail;  but  it  failed  from  an  artistic  standpoint 
through  the  lack  of  harmony  in  social,  religious,  and  political 
conditions  of  two  peoples  living  twenty-two  centuries  apart. 


§51 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


333 


CLASSIC   REVIVAL  IN  ENGLAND 

203.  Of  the  Classic  Revival  in  England  there  is  little  in 
praise  to  be  said.  The  modified  Palladian  style  of  Wren 
and  his  successors  continued  until  superseded  by  the  Greek 
Revival,  which  never  succeeded  in  combining  any  two  fea- 
tures of  beauty  and  utility.  A  plain  fagade,  with  unmolded 
rectangular  windows,  was  embellished  with  a  four-  or  a  six- 
columned  Ionic  portico  and  called  Greek;  or,  a  street  front 
was  erected  without  any  window's,  and  covered  with  a  sculp- 


FIG.  84 

tured  pediment,  to  establish  its  style  of  architecture,  while 
in  the  rear  a  multiplicity  of  windows  gave  the  necessary 
light.  Windows  have  always  been  the  stumbling  block  of 
the  revived  Greek  style,  and  the  application  of  the  revival  to 
a  modern  structure  requires  the  omission  of  the  windows. 

204.  Fitzwilliam  Museum. — The  Fitzwilliam 
Museum,  at  Cambridge,  Fig.  84,  is  a  well-proportioned 
structure,  whose  purpose  requires  no  windows  and  therefore 
fits  itself  to  the  style.  The  arrangement  of  the  portico,  the 
treatment  of  the  pilasters,  and  the  molding  of  the  cornice 


334  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

are  decidedly  more  suggestive  of  Roman  than  of  Greek 
models,  showing  how  inefficient  the  pure  Greek  design  is  to 
a  purely  modern  purpose. 

205.  St.  George's  Hall. — St.  George's  Hall,  at  Liver- 
poo),  Fig.  85,  is  a  building  whose  imposing  peristyle  and 
projecting  porches  are  decidedly  Greek  in  spirit,  though  the 
plan  and  details  are  decidedly  Roman.  The  utility  of  the 


FIG.  85 

building,  however,  is  sacrificed  to  a  certain  extent,  as 
the  colonnade  cuts  off  the  light  and  is  an  utterly  useless 
appendage,  except  to  stamp  the  design  as  belonging  to  the 
efforts  of  the  Greek  revival. 

206.  Royal     Exchange. — The     Royal     Exchange,    at 
London,  Fig.  86,  presents  a  portico  that  would  be  more  suit- 
able for  a  Roman  temple  than  for  a  modern  business  build- 
ing.    Behind  this  portico,  the  window  openings  are  hidden 
in  the  effort  to  render  them  subordinate  to  the  classic  detail. 

207.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  in  England,  as  in  Ger- 
many,  the   application  of    the    architecture    of    the   age    of 
Pericles  to  the  structures  of  the  19th  century  was  found  to 
be  impracticable.     After  repeated  efforts  and  many  failures, 
the  style  was  abandoned  and  has  ceased  to  be  practiced, 
except  in  rare  instances,  down  to  the  present  day. 


ILT  303—41 


336  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


RECENT  ARCHITECTURE   IN   EUROPE 

208.  Up  to  this  point,  the  progress  of  architecture  and 
the  development  of  architectural  styles,   from  the  days  of 
ancient  Egypt  to  the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  have  been 
treated.     It  has  been  shown  how  the  characteristic  details  of 
Greek  architecture  grew  out  of  constructive  principles;  how 
these  details  were  adopted  by  the   Romans    and   used    as 
decorative  adjuncts  to  their  triumphs  of  engineering  skill, 
while  the  structural  device  that  called  them  into  existence 
was   ignored;    and   how    the    engineering    science    of    the 
Romans   was    developed    and    improved    on    by   both    the 
Byzantine  and  the  Gothic  system  of  construction.     But  with 
these    styles,    architectural    construction    ceases    to    exist. 
With  the  Renaissance,  architectural  design  and  architectural 
construction    were    separate    and    distinct    considerations. 
With  the  Classic-Revival  period,  construction  and  arrange- 
ment of  plan  were  each  an  independent  problem,  and  the 
dawn  of  the  19th  century  found  architecture  in  a  thoroughly 
misunderstood  condition. 

The  past  century  has  been  preeminently  one  of  progress, 
particularly  in  scientific,  mechanical,  and  commercial  lines, 
and  the  demand  for  utility  in  every  structural  detail  has 
prevented  architecture  from  taking  its  proper  place  in  the 
march  of  progress.  Nevertheless,  the  artistic  spirit  has  not 
been  entirely  crushed  out  by  commercialism,  and  the  numer- 
ous international  exhibitions,  the  increase  in  the  number  of 
museums,  schools  of  art,  etc.,  have  wakened  a  latent  desire 
for  something  more  than  merely  utilitarian  construction. 

209.  France,  Germany,  and  England  are  the  countries 
that  must    be    looked    to    for  modern  development.     Italy 
never  emerged  from  the  style  of  the   Renaissance;   Spain 
lost  her  power  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  and 
repeated  invasions  and  internal  revolutions  prevented  any 


218-1  L  T  101,  303    5  51 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  337 

architectural  advancement;  while  Holland  and  Belgium  were 
so  concerned  in  the  political  changes  of  Spain,  France,  and 
England,  that  little  time  was  devoted  to  the  fine  arts  other 
than  painting. 

210.  In  France,  the    School    of    Fine   Arts,    at    Paris, 
systematized   and  unified   the   national   architecture,  but   at 
the  same  time  prevented  a  free  development  of  idesis.     In 
consequence,  French  architecture  has  adhered  to  the  prin- 
ciples   of    the    Renaissance,     though    slight    breaks    have 
occurred  in  the  progress  of  a  modern  Renaissance  develop- 
ment.    These  breaks  were  in  the   form   of  an  attempt  to 
introduce    the    Greek   Revival,   which   failed,   and  a  strong 
Revived  Gothic  movement,  represented  by  a  very  able  and 
celebrated  architect  and  writer,  Viollet-le-Duc.     The  Gothic 
movement  produced  no  very  important  buildings,  but  it  was 
fruitful  in  the  restoration  of  a  great  many  medieval  churches 
and  castles,  which  would  otherwise  have  gone  to  ruin. 

211.  The  reign  of  Napoleon  III  (1852  to  1870)  was  a 
period    of    exceptional    activity,    especially    in    Paris.     The 
Louvre   was  finally  completed  by  two   architects,   Visconti 
and  Lefuel;   the  Tuileries  was  partly  remodeled  and  com- 
pleted by  the  same  architects;  the  New  Opera  House  was 
built  by  Gamier;  and  numerous  public  fountains,  elaborate 
in  design  and  construction,  were  erected  in  streets,  which 
were  remodeled  and  extended  at  this  time,  making  Paris  one 
of  the  most  monumental  cities  in  the  world. 

212.  The  Completed  Ijouvre. — Fig.  87  shows  the  outer 
court  of  the  Louvre,  facing  the  Place  du  Carrousel.     The 
treatment  of  the  two  facing  wings  constitute  one  of  the  most 
notable  examples  of  modern  French  architecture.     Fig.  88 
shows  the   Pavilion   Richelieu   in  the  center  of   the  above 
fagade,  from  the  details  of  which  the  character  of  the  design 
may  be  more  closely  observed.     In  Fig.  89,  another  pavilion 
is    shown,    in    which    the    characteristic    mansard    roof    is 
introduced.      The   ornamental   details   of   these   facades   are 
extremely  refined   and   beautifully   proportioned,   and   show 
plainly  the  influence  of  the  National  School  of  Fine  Arts. 


338 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§51 


Nothing  in  the  designs  exists  there  without  a  reason — either 
traditional  or  structural — and  all  is  harmonized  according  to 
a  well-governed  system  practiced  in  the  French  school  of  art. 


FIG.  88 


There  are  certain  defects,  to  be  sure,  but  the  critic  must  hunt 
for  them,  as  they  are  not  glaring,  and  they  are  so  outweighed  by 
the  good  points  that  there  can  be  no  hesitancy  in  commending 
the  design  as  successful  from  every  point  of  view. 


340  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

213.  Academy  of  Music    at    Paris. — The   Academy 
of  Music,  or  Paris  Opera  House,  by  Gamier,  Fig.  90,  built 
between  1863  and  1875,  stands  next  to  the  Louvre  in  impor- 
tance as  a  national  monument.     This  structure  is  by  far  the 
most  elaborate  and  richly  decorated  building  for  amusements 
in  the  world,  but  in  purity  of  detail  and  harmony  and  refine- 
ment of  its  design  is  far  inferior  to  the  Louvre.     In  this 
structure  the  public  taste  for  gorgeousness  is  catered  to, 
rather  than  the  demand  of  the  refined  intellect  for  harmony 
of  proportion.     This  fagade  loudly  proclaims  the  sentiment, 
"The  nation  is  rich  and  can  afford  to  spend  its  money  on 
elaborate   carvings,   bas-reliefs,    and   painted   frescos."     In 
contrast   to    this,    consider    the    ancient    Greek    structures, 
whose  every  detail  proclaimed,  not  wealth  and  egotism,  but 
intellectual  development  and  refined  appreciation. 

214.  The  systematic    study  required   by  the    National 
School  of  Fine  Arts,  the  restrictions  of  the  government  as 
to  those  who  shall  practice  architecture,  and  the  thorough 
education  of  the  artisans,  whose  fathers  have  followed  the 
same  trade  for  generations  back,  have  all  combined  to  place 
French  architecture  and  the  French  style  in  design  ahead  of 
the  rest  of  the  world  at  the  present  day.     While  England 
has  been   wavering   between    two    antagonistic    styles  and 
Germany  has  vainly  struggled  with  her  classic  forms,  France 
has  steadily  advanced  in  the  development  of  a  modern  school 
of  Renaissance. 

France,  England,  and  Italy  all  have  educational  institutions 
where  architecture  is  taught  as  a  profession,  but  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  the  School  of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris  has  thus  far 
accomplished  the  most  satisfactory  results. 

This  may  seem  strange  when  one  considers  that  it  was  from 
Italy  that  the  Renaissance  style  emanated,  but  it  is  also  a  fact 
that  the  Renaissance  architects  of  Italy  were  sculptors, 
painters,  and  literary  men  rather  than  constructors,  while  the 
French  Renaissance  architects  had  been  long  trained  in 
Gothic  construction  before  studying  the  Italian  system  of 
design. 


L  T  101—27 


342  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


GOTHIC   REVIVAL 

215.  About  the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  a  number  of 
enthusiastic   students  of   the  British   medieval   monuments 
endeavored  to  revive  the  Gothic  as  a  national  style  of  archi- 
tecture.    These    enthusiasts  were  bitterly  opposed  by  the 
practicing  architects  of  the  Classic  Revival,  and  the  argu- 
ments became  so  active  that  in  the  principal  art  societies 
all  discussion  of  the  relative  merits  of  the  two  styles  was 
suppressed. 

The  revived  Gothic,  however,  is  not  the  same  as  that  of 
the  12th  century,  although  when  the  style  was  first  revived, 
the  general  tendency  of  the  practice  was  to  make  every 
detail  archeologically  correct;  but  it  was  soon  learned  that 
medieval  Gothic  was  no  better  suited  to  modern  require- 
ments than  the  classic  Greek  or  Roman.  Between  the  years 
1850  and  1870,  the  striving  for  historical  correctness  of 
detail  gave  place  to  a  rational  effort  to  adapt  Gothic  prin- 
ciples to  modern  requirements,  instead  of  merely  copying 
extinct  styles,  and  the  result  is  a  number  of  extremely 
interesting  buildings. 

216.  Parliament    Houses    at    Westminster. — Chief 
among  structures  of  this  class  are  the  Parliament  Houses,  at 
Westminster,  Fig.  91,  designed  by  Sir  Charles  Barry,  in  the 
style  of  the  Perpendicular  period.     This  immense  structure 
is  the  most  successful  edifice  in  the  Victorian  Gothic  style. 
Its  masses   are   simple   and  its   detail  is  well  studied  and 
refined,    while    the    entire    composition    is    dignified    and 
imposing.     It  is  defective,  however,  in  the  proportioning  of 
its  details  to  the  general  mass.     The  details   are  made  to 
appear  insignificant  by  the  vastness  of  their  surroundings, 
and  the  two  principal  towers — one  at  the  angle  and  the  other 
in  the  center — are  out  of  proportion  to  the  building  and  to 
each  other.     The  central  tower  would  appear  much  more 


344  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENl  §51 

imposing  if  not  dwarfed  by  the  great  Victoria  Tower  at  the 
angle,  while  the  latter  would  harmonize  with  its  flanking 
fagades  if  it  were  smaller  and  better  proportioned  to  their 
details. 

217.  Other  buildings  designed  in  this  style  were  inclined 
to  the  same  excesses,  so  that  at  the  present  day  architecture 
in  Great  Britain  is  suffering  from  the  same  uncertainty  as  at 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  century — some  architects  still 
Savoring  the  Gothic,  while  others  are  designing  in  the  style 
of  the  Renaissance,  and  still  others  are  endeavoring  to  draw 
an  inspiration  from  the  revived  Classic. 

This  is  not  an  artistic  age,  and  the  striving  for  originality 
in  design  is  preventing  the  advancement  of  architecture 
along  healthy  and  rational  lines. 

As  there  never  was  a  general  acceptance  of  either  contention 
the  movement  was  confined  almost  exclusively  to  church 
building.  It  was  argued  that  a  small  building  could  not  be 
Gothic  in  its  stricter  sense,  as  there  was  no  vaulting,  and  that 
a  castle  or  fortress  was  theoretically  not  Gothic,  as  its  vaults 
were  sustained  by  enormously  thick  walls  instead  of  by  flying 
buttresses.  Therefore,  as  structural  iron  and  tile  blocks  were 
suitable  for  fireproof  roofing,  vaulting  had  become  obsolete 
and  without  vaulting  Gothic  architecture  could  not  exist. 

Many  parish  churches  were  erected,  however,  in  what  was 
intended  to  be  a  pure  modern  Gothic;  but  while  many  were 
carefully  studying  the  medieval  moldings  and  details  that 
were  to  be  duplicated  in  projected  structures,  others  were 
experimenting  with  the  effects  of  Italian  Gothic  with  its 
polychromic  decoration  and  with  French  Gothic  with  its  rich 
effect  in  sculpture. 

What  was  afterwards  termed  Victorian  Gothic  was  in  many 
instances  English  Gothic  materially  altered  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  Italian  and  French  detail,  principally  details  in  colored 
marbles,  patterns  of  brickwork,  and  sculptured  figures. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  345 


AMERICAN   ARCHITECTURE 


EARLY  COLONIAL  PERIOD 

218.  The  successful  colonization  of  America  was  not 
accomplished  until  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  and 
the  hardships  of  the  colonists  were  at  first  so  great  that 
little  attention  was  given  to  architectural  development  until 
the  beginning  of  the  18th  century.  Buildings  of  stone  were 
not  undertaken  by  the  early  English  colonists,  though  brick 
structures  were  erected  in  the  southern  and  Dutch  colonies. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  the  influence  of 
Wren's  designs  in  England  began  to  exert  itself  to  a  small 
extent  in  the  southern  English  colonies,  though  the  struc- 
tures were  nearly  all  erected  of  wood  or  of  brick  and  wood. 
From  1725  to  the  Revolution,  the  population  increased  along 
the  coast,  and  with  the  gradual  acquirement  of  wealth  there 
was  an  advancement  in  the  character  of  the  architecture,  as 
seen  in  the  dwellings  and  churches  of  the  American  aristoc- 
racy. During  this  period,  the  development  of  what  is  now 
known  as  the  Colonial  style  took  place.  It  was  based  on  ideas 
drawn  from  the  classic  in  England,  particularly  that  phase 
of  the  revival  which  appeared  during  the  reigns  of  Queen 
Anne  and  the  Georges.  The  details,  however,  were  exten- 
sively modified  by  the  use  of  wood  instead  of  stone  and  by 
the  employment  of  designers  that  were  not  educated  and 
trained  in  the  Old-World  architectural  traditions.  The  style, 
especially  in  interior  design,  exhibited  the  taste  and  culture 
of  the  colonial  aristocracy  in  its  delicate  and  refined  treat- 
ment of  the  woodwork,  but  there  were  no  buildings  erected 
in  this  style  that  were  of  a  really  monumental  character. 
Stone  edifices  were  very  scarce,  and  the  administrative 
buildings  of  the  principal  cities  were  small,  unpretentious 
structures,  built  within  the  insufficient  grants  of  the  king. 


346  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

219.  Besides  the  British  settlements  in  America  there 
were,  before  the  colonies  achieved  their  independence,  sec- 
tions settled  by  Holland,  Spain,  and  France,  and  many  of 
the  New  England  settlers  sojourned  a  long  time  in  Holland 
before  sailing   for  America.     The   architecture  of   each  of 
these  countries,  therefore,  influenced  the  style  of  the  new 
Republic,  as  the  local  precedents  were  followed  even  after 
England  controlled  the  coast  settlements  that  were  after- 
wards to  constitute  the  first  thirteen  states,   and    English 
architectural  style  was  to  predominate  in  the  best  buildings. 

New  York  was  settled  by  the  Dutch,  and  their  character- 
istics affected  the  architecture  of  the  Hudson  valley  settle- 
ments up  to  the  Mohawk  river.  Florida  was  settled  by  the 
Spanish,  and  although  it  did  not  come  into  the  United  States 
until  1812,  its  Spanish  architecture  influenced  the  coast 
colonies  as  far  north  as  South  Carolina. 

The  dwellings  exhibit  clearly  the  different  tastes  of  the  dif- 
ferent colonies,  though  they  all  possess  features  of  common 
origin  in  the  mother  country.  In  Maryland  and  Virginia, 
which  were  colonized  by  a  wealthy  class  of  English  subjects, 
are  found  fine  brick  manor  houses  and  extensive  grounds. 
The  grounds  are  surrounded  by  high  brick  walls  and  are 
entered  through  broad  gates  of  artistic  design.  The  inte- 
riors of  these  southern  colonial  houses  are  usually  very 
elaborate,  the  side  walls  of  the  large  high-ceilinged  rooms 
being  decorated  with  stenciled  or  frescoed  patterns  of  the 
urn  and  festoon  of  the  Adam  brothers  in  England.  Rich 
mahogany  sideboards  of  Sheraton  design  and  bandy-legged 
furniture  of  Chippendale,  together  with  broad  open  fire- 
places, suggestive  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  form  charac- 
teristics inseparable  from  the  spirit  of  the  design  of  the 
American  colonial  manor  house  of  Maryland  or  Virginia. 

220.  In  New  England,  the  majority  of  the  residences 
were    of   wood.     The    plans  were  more   compact,   and  the 
exteriors  were  more  picturesque,  but  they  were  lacking  in 
the  dignity  and  stateliness  of   the   southern   manor.     The 
interior  details,  wainscots,    cornices,  stairs,    mantels,    etc., 


§51 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


347 


were  essentially  the  same  as  in  the  South,  and  each  showed 
a  skilful  adaptation  of  the  classic  forms  and  details  to  the 
slender  proportions  of  a  wood  construction.  Externally,  the 
orders  appear  as  supporting  details  for  veranda  and  porch 
roofs,  and  in  the  form  of  colossal  pilasters  flanking  and  sub- 
dividing the  facades,  as  shown  in  Fig.  92,  which  is  a  view  of 
the  old  Cragie  House,  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  built  in 
1757,  and  afterwards  the  residence  of  Henry  W.  Longfellow. 
The  interest  in  American  colonial  architecture  lies  chiefly 
in  the  taste  and  ingenuity  displayed  in  the  translation  of 


FIG.  92 

classic  details  from  stone  into  wood.  The  American  colonists 
were  of  English  descent,  and,  persecuted  though  they  may 
have  been,  they  loved  their  mother  country,  and  far  from 
desiring  to  start  any  sort  of  an  independent  style  of  their 
own,  they  copied  their  designs  from  the  contemporary 
English  style,  and  erected  in  wood  what  they  had  not  the 
means  nor  the  skill  to  qarve  in  stone,  and  took  pride  in 
the  accuracy  \vith  which  they  adhered  ro  the  details  of  the 
parent  style. 


348  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 


EARLY  REPUBLICAN  PERIOD 

221.  After  the  Revolutionary  War,  the  new  conditions 
of  independence  and  self-government  caused  the  American 
people  to  take  a  new  interest  in  building  projects  and  to 
undertake  the  erection  of  structures  that  should  be  monu- 
mental as  well  as  purely  useful.    Capitols  and  other  buildings 
for  the  national  and  state  governments,  and  municipal  build- 
ings in  the  cities,  were  erected  at  this  time,  and  though  the 
style  was  after  the  late  Renaissance  of  Wren  and  his  fol- 
lowers, there  was  a  considerable  admixture  of  French  details, 
due  no  doubt  to  the  active  sympathy  of  the  French  people 
during  the  war. 

222.  Capitol  at  Washington. — The  United  States  Cap- 
itol, at  Washington,  Fig.  93,  was  commenced  in  1793,  and 
consisted  of  the  central  portion  of  the  present  building,  with- 
out the  dome.     The  rusticated  basement  and  high-columned 
portico,  together  with  the  pedimented  windows  in  the  first 
story  and  the  square  masonry  openings  above,  are  strongly 
suggestive  of  the  fagade  of  Somerset  House,  Fig.  73,  and  it  is 
not  improbable  that  Thornton,  Hallet,  and  Latrobe,  the  succes- 
sive architects,  drew  more  or  less  inspiration  from  that  edifice. 
The  building  was  not  finally  completed  until  the  year  1830, 
when,  under  the  supervision  of  Charles  Bulfinch,  the  two 
flanking  wings  were  added,  thus  making  this  monumental 
structure  one  of  the  finest  legislative  palaces  in  the  world. 

223.  The  dome  is  the  principal  feature.     It  rises  from 
the  ground  line  to  the  top  of  the  statue  of  liberty,  which 
surmounts  it,  a  height  of  287  feet,  while  its  diameter  inside 
is  94  feet.     This  dome  is  smaller  than  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's, 
London,  but  in  design  is  quite  as  imposing  as  the  creation 
of  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 

The  dome  over  the  Pantheon,  at  Rome,  is  a  concrete 
vault  supported  by  massive  walls.  The  dome  over  Hagia 
Sophia,  at  Constantinople,  is  a  masonry  construction  sup- 
ported on  four  immense  piers.  The  dome  over  St.  Peter's 
is  constructed  in  two  shells,  the  inner  one  for  interior  effect 


349 


350  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

and  the  outer  one  for  exterior  effect.  Over  the  Hotel  des 
Invalides  is  a  stone  inner  dome  and  a  lead-covered  outer 
dome  of  wood,  while  St.  Paul's  Church,  at  London,  has  an 
inner  dome  of  stone,  an  outer  dome  of  wood,  and  between 
them  a  tall  cone  of  brick  to  carry  the  stone  lantern  above 
the  wooden  roof.  There  has  thus  been  an  advancement  in 
the  combination  of  design  from  an  artistic  standpoint  and 
design  from  a  structural  consideration,  but  the  advancement 
has  been  at  the  expense  of  architectural  honesty  and  truth- 
fulness. The  exterior  dome  in  these  latter-day  constructions 
is  not  what  it  claims  to  be  by  appearance — namely,  the  roof 
over  a  portion  of  the  interior  of  the  building — but  is  an 
exterior  roof  over  an  interior  ceiling,  with  no  connection  or 
relation  to  the  structural  requirements  of  the  interior  at  all. 
Down  to  the  building  of  the  United  States  Capitol,  it  was 
traditionally  assumed  that  the  architectural  dignity  of  the 
structure  required  at  least  one  of  these  domes  to  be  of 
masonry  construction,  in  order  to  be  solid,  substantial,  and 
fireproof.  But  the  design  of  the  dome  at  Washington  set 
aside  all  traditions,  and  called  for  a  construction  of  one 
single  material,  namely,  iron.  No  wood  or  stone  is  used 
anywhere  in  the  dome.  The  absence  of  the  former  certainly 
insures  it  against  fire,  but  the  details  are  so  suggestive  of 
stone  construction  that  the  design  is  even  more  untruthful 
than  St.  Paul's.  A  vast  shell  of  wrought-iron  trusses,  cast- 
iron  columns,  and  sheet-iron  covering  is  so  treated  as  to 
appear  like  an  architectural  composition  of  stone;  and 
though  the  details  are  well  proportioned  and  refined,  it 
detracts  from  the  harmony  to  know  that  those  details  are 
products,  not  of  the  stone-carver's  art,  but  of  the  pattern- 
maker's and  the  ironworker's  skill. 

224.  White  House.— The  White  House,  Fig.  94,  is  the 
name  given  to  the  executive  mansion,  or  residence  of  the 
president  of  the  United  States.  This  structure,  commenced 
in  1792,  is  a  typical  example  of  the  Classic  Revival  in 
America.  It  was  designed  by  James  Hoban,  an  Irishman, 
who  patterned  it  somewhat  after  the  house  of  the  Duke  of 


§51 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


351 


Leicester,  at  Dublin.  This,  and  the  fact  that  it  exceeded  in 
size  any  private  dwelling  in  America,  gave  cause  for  much 
opposition,  and  made  Congress  slow  in  providing  the  neces- 
sary appropriations.  The  building  is  constructed  of  sand- 
stone, and  several  heavy  coats  of  white  paint  applied  to 
protect  the  stone  from  climatic  influences  caused  the  building 
to  become  known  by  its  present  name. 

225.  University  of  Virginia. — The  University  of 
Virginia,  at  Charlottesville,  another  classic  edifice,  was 
designed  by  Thomas  Jefferson,  the  third  president  of  the 


FIG.  94 

United  States.     The  fact  that  Jefferson  was  an  architect  had 
much  to  do  with  the  activity  in  building  design  at  this  period. 

226.  Girard  College. — Another  educational  institution, 
Girard  College,  at  Philadelphia,  Fig.  95,  shows  to  what 
extremes  the  Classic  Revival  was  carried  even  in  America. 
This  building  is  designed  to  appear  as  a  Roman  temple.  It 
is  218  feet  long  and  159  feet  wide,  and  with  its  columns  6  feet 
in  diameter  and  55  feet  in  height,  its  marble  exterior  might 
have  rivaled  the  Walhalla,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that 
instead  of  a  cella,  the  colonnade  encloses  a  very  ordinary 
two-storied  college  building.  Its  details  are  well  executed, 

I  L  T  303—42 


352 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§51 


however,  and  its  designer,  in  applying  the  elements  of  a 
Roman  temple  to  the  purposes  of  a  modern  college,  was 
committing  no  greater  error  than  his  contemporaries  on  the 
other  side  of  the  sea,  who  had  been  endeavoring  to  accom- 
plish similar  impossibilities  for  three  decades. 

227.  Other  American  Examples. — Other  existing 
examples  of  the  Classic  Revival  in  America  are  the  Treas- 
ury and  Patent-Office  Buildings  in  Washington,  and  the  Sub- 
treasury  and  old  Custom  House  building  in  New  York. 


FIG.  95 

228.  Trinity  and  Grace  Churches. — The  decline  of 
the  Classic  Revival,  and  the  rise  of  the  Victorian  Gothic,  in 
England,    immediately    found    its    echo    in   America,    and 
Trinity  Church,  in  New  York,  Fig.  96,  designed  by  Upjohn, 
in  1843,  as  well  as  Grace  Church,  by  Renwick,  are  worthy 
examples  of  modern  Gothic  work. 

229.  American  Architects. — Between  1870  and  1880, 
the  disastrous  fires  at  Chicago  and  Boston  gave  opportuni- 
ties for  architectural  improvement  in  those  cities  and  greatly 
stimulated  public  interest  in  the  art.  »  . 


§51 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


353 


The  establishment  of  architectural  schools  in  Boston  and 
New  York,  and  the  opening  of  public  museums  of  art  in  the 
principal  cities,  caused  the  American  public  to  wake  up  and 
be  more  critical  of  the  things  around  them  and  to  demand 
a  higher  grade  of  architectural  design. 


FIG.  9G 

At  this  time  the  personal  influence  or  two  men  comes  into 
great  prominence:  Richard  M.  Hunt  (born  1827,  died  1895), 
and  Henry  Hobson  Richardson  (born  1828,  died  1886). 
These  men,  educated  at  the  French  National  School  of 
Architecture,  showed  the  American  public  that  architecture 
was  a  fine  art  and  not  a  mechanical  trade,  and  made  the 


354 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


§51 


people  understand  that  the  architecture  of  a  country  was  the 
key  to  the  education,  refinement,  and  social  condition  of  its 
inhabitants. 

230.  In  Hunt's  office,  many  of  the  most  prominent 
American  architects  of  the  present  day  received  their  early 
training,  while  the  works  of  Richardson  exhibited  such  an 
independence  of  the  prevailing  styles  in  foreign  countries, 
and  at  the  same  time  so  well  suited  the  purposes  for  which 


FIG.  97 

they  were  erected,  that,  had  his  successors  and  followers 
understood  the  art  better,  a  new  style  of  architecture  would 
likely  have  evolved. 

Trinity  Church,  at  Boston,  Fig.  97,  is  considered  one  of 
Richardson's  masterpieces.  The  design  is  what  might  be 
termed  Romanesque,  not  in  the  sense  of  an  adaptation  of 
10th-century  Romanesque  to  American  ideas,  but  an  appli- 
cation of  the  Roman-arched  construction  to  the  19th-century 
conditions.  Broad,  blank  wall  spaces  of  rock-faced  masonry 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  355 

are  left  where  windows  were  not  required,  thereby  present- 
ing a  rough,  gladiator-like  expression  of  crudity,  character- 
istic of  the  period  when  the  architecture  of  every  country  of 
Europe  was  feeling  its  way  from  the  rejected  classic  arch 
toward  the  perfected  Gothic  vault.  This  architecture  of 
Richardson's  was  true  in  its  construction.  Everything  was 
real;  no  false  domes  nor  senseless  pilasters  crowned  the  roof 
or  graced  the  walls.  Everything  existed  because  it  was 
needed,  and  details  not  wanted  were  omitted,  without  any 
attempt  to  fill  blank  wall  spaces  with  relieving  ornaments. 

231.  The  opening  of  the  French  National  School  of  Fine 
Arts  to  American  students  had  a  marked  effect  on  the  art 
education  of  the  American  people.  Libraries  were  stocked 
with  architectural  works  that  would  have  been  too  expensive 
to  have  been  purchased  by  the  individual  student,  and  all  the 
important  journals  and  publications  of  the  day  were  soon  at 
the  service  of  ambitious  students. 

The  great  Public  Library,  at  Boston,  Fig.  98,  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  important  of  these  educational  institutions. 
It  was  designed  by  McKim,  Mead,  &  White,  a  firm  of  archi- 
tects prominent  through  their  adaptations  of  the  designs  of 
some  of  the  best  buildings  of  Europe  to  American  uses. 
The  Boston  Library  was  an  American  rendering  of  the 
Library  of  St.  Genevfeve,  at  Paris.  The  New  York  State 
Building  at  the  World's  Fair,  Chicago,  by  the  same  archi- 
tects, was  patterned  after  the  Villa  Medici  (see  Fig.  19). 
The  tower  of  the  Madison  Square  Garden,  Fig.  99,  is  a  very 
clever  adaptation  of  the  Giralda,  at  Seville  (see  History 
of  Architecture  and  Ornament,  Part  3,  Fig.  83).  The  Herald 
Building  in  New  York  City  presents  a  modified  design 
after  the  Palace  Consiglio,  Fig.  5  (b}.  This  adaptation 
of  individual  buildings  is  certainly  not  the  highest  form 
of  art,  but  it  presented  for  the  study  of  the  people  a 
variety  of  good  designs,  which  made  them  more  appreci- 
ative of  the  architectural  merits  of  their  cities  than  would 
a  lot  of  more  original,  more  artistic,  but  less  successful 
compositions. 


§51 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT 


357 


232.  Richardson  designed  and  built  about  fifty  prominent 
buildings  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  among  which  are 
the  Court  House  at  Allegheny,  Pennsylvania;  parts  of  the 
Capitol  at  Albany,  New  York;  Armory  at  Detroit,  Michigan; 
State  Asylum  at  Buffalo,  New  York;  and  also  the  exhibition 
building  at  Cordova,  in  Argentine  Republic,  South  America. 


FIG.  99 

Richard  M.  Hunt  was  more  identified  with  residential 
architecture  than  with  public  buildings,  and  though  his 
designs  for  mansions  and  villas  were  harmonious  and  above 
reproach,  and  are  represented  by  the  most  elaborate  and 
expensive  dwellings  in  America,  his  great  service  to  the 
profession,  and  indirectly  to  the  architectural  elevation  of 


358  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

the  country,  was  in  his  establishment,  in  his  office,  of  a 
regular  system  of  instruction  and  training  for  architectural 
students.  Much  of  the  better  architecture  of  the  present  day 
is  due  to  this  system  and  to  those  who  studied  under  it.  One 
of  these  students  was  William  R.  Ware,  Emeritus  Professor 
of  Architecture  at  Columbia  University  and  author  of  a  num- 
ber of  architectural  books,  especially  prepared  for  students' 
use.  Among  these  is  a  treatise  on  the  architectural  orders, 
entitled  The  American  Vignola,  which  discusses  the  orders 
as  they  are  used  in  modern  practice  and  provides  a  simple 
system  of  portraying  them  under  a  modern  system  of 
measurement.  Another  architectural  writer  of  prominence 
that  studied  under  Mr.  Hunt  is  Henry  Van  Brunt,  who  is 
author  of  several  essays  upon  styles  and  buildings  that  are 
of  deep  interest  to  the  architectural  student.  Several  archi- 
tects prominent  in  American  practice  received  their  schooling 
in  this  office,  among  whom  are  Post,  of  New  York;  Furness, 
of  Philadelphia;  and  Gambrill,  who,  until  his  death,  was  the 
partner  of  Richardson.  Each  of  these  men  carried  into  his 
own  practice  the  systematic  style  of  Hunt's  methods  of 
working,  and  helped  establish  in  the  general  architecture 
of  their  several  localities  an  appreciation  of  the  value  of 
good  architectural  composition. 

233.  Hunt's  early  architectural  training  commenced  at 
the  age  of  fifteen  when  he  went  to  Geneva  and  studied  with 
Darier.  At  twenty  he  entered  the  School  of  Fine  Arts  under 
the  direction  of  Hector  Lefuel,  the  government  architect. 
Hunt  then  traveled  about  Europe,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor 
until  1854,  when  he  returned  to  Paris  and  rejoined  Lefuel, 
who  was  then  engaged  in  completing  the  northern  gallery  of 
the  Louvre,  the  most  important  feature  of  which  was  to  be 
the  central  pavilion.  As  a  pupil  of  Lefuel's,  Hunt  designed 
this  pavilion,  and  it  was  erected,  with  but  slight  alteration, 
under  his  personal  supervision,  when  afterwards  he  was 
appointed  inspector  of  the  works. 

Thus  it  was  that  one  of  the  most  important  structures  in 
modern  French  architecture  was  designed  and  erected  by 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  359 

an  American  architect.  Later  Hunt  came  to  America  and 
was  associated  with  Walter  in  the  extension  of  the  Capitol 
at  Washington,  after  which  he  moved  to  New  York  and 
opened  an  office  where  he  received  students  for  architectural 
training  similar  to  that  which  he  had  obtained  in  Paris.  It  is 
not  surprising  to  find  Hunt's  designs  all  more  or  less 
influenced  by  the  French  style  and  school  of  design.  For 
many  years  Hunt  was  the  best-known  architect  in  America, 


FIG.  100 

and  although  he  did  not  erect  many  public  buildings,  his 
residence  designs  are  numerous.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  Biltmore  House  at  Asheville,  North  Carolina,  a  vast 
residence  in  the  mountains,  strongly  suggesting  the  Francis  I 
chateaux  along  the  Loire;  "Marble  Hall"  and  the  "Breakers," 
two  residences  at  Newport  in  the  later  and  more  classic 
Renaissance;  the  W.  K.  Vanderbilt  house,  New  York, 
Fig.  100,  which  is  a  most  dainty  piece  of  early  Renaissance 


360  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  §51 

work,  strongly  suggesting  Chenonceau  and  Azay-le-Rideau, 
but  well  adapted  to  its  urban  position  at  the  intersection  of 
two  of  New  York's  busiest  residence  streets.  He  also  built 
the  Administration  building  of  the  Columbian  Exposition, 
Chicago,  the  Lenox  Library,  New  York,  the  National 
Observatory,  Washington,  and  two  buildings  of  the  West 
Point  Military  Academy. 


CONCLUSION 

234.  A  review  of  a  larger  number  of  buildings  erected 
in  the  19th  century  would  show  no  idea  or  development  of 
greater  importance  than  those  already  referred  to,  and  as 
architects  today  are  no  nearer  the  invention  of  a  new  style 
than  they  were  200  years  ago,  the  examples  given  are  suffi- 
cient to  show  the  progress  made  in  this  direction.  The 
questions  are  often  asked,  Why  do  the  architects  of  today 
copy  ancient  forms  and  never  invent  new  ones?  Why  must 
all  architecture  be  a  reproduction  of  the  Renaissance, 
Romanesque,  or  Gothic  styles,  and  never  strictly  original 
and  peculiar  to  the  present  time? 

These  questions  may  thus  be  answered:  It  should  first 
be  borne  in  mind  that  there  are  only  two  original  styles  of 
architecture — the  pagan  and  the  Christian,  otherwise  called 
the  classic  and  the  Gothic.  All  other  styles,  at  best,  are  only 
diversified  forms,  affected  by  local  combinations,  manner- 
isms, and  individual  caprice.  Thus,  the  natural  tendency  in 
the  practice  of  architecture  has  always  been  little  more  than 
imitative  of  the  past,  a  radical  change  having  been  accom- 
plished only  through  the  inspiration  or  enthusiasm  of  some 
grand  religious,  political,  or  social  revolution.  The  conquest 
of  Greece  by  the  Romans  gave  birth  to  the  Roman  style  of 
architecture,  which  was  a  combination  of  Greek  design  and 
Roman  construction.  The  growth  of  Christianity  produced 
the  Romanesque  style  in  the  effort  to  adapt  Roman  design 
to  a  more  economical  system  of  construction.  The  Gothic 
was  developed  from  the  Romanesque  construction  when  the 
traditions  of  Roman  design  were  lost  during  the  Dark  Ages. 


§51  ARCHITECTURE  AND  ORNAMENT  361 

235.  The  enlightenment  and  education  of  the  people 
toward  the  close  of  the  15th  century  enabled  them  to  read 
for  themselves  what  had  heretofore  been  taught  only  by  the 
priests;  enabled  them  to  judge  for  themselves  what  before 
had  been  interpreted  only  by  the  clergy.  Different  opinions 
thus  arose,  which  led  to  a  division  of  the  Church.  The 
introduction  of  pagan  forms  and  details  and  the  imitation 
of  Roman  luxuries  and  extravagances,  mark  the  character 
of  the  Renaissance  period,  while  the  Classic  and  Gothic 
Revivals  show  the  tendency  of  one  class  toward  the  intem- 
perate admiration  of  heathen  art,  while  the  other  class,  led 
by  the  Church,  endeavored  to  instil  into  the  world  at  large 
a  proper  love  and  admiration  for  Christian  forms. 

Thus,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  modeling  after  preexisting 
forms,  architects  of  today  are  simply  following  the  course 
that  has  been  pursued  ever  since  the  infancy  of  art. 


REVIEW    EXERCISES 

1.  (a)    What   influences   led   to  the  Classic  Revival  in  the  several 
European  countries?     (b)   What  was  the  effect  of  the  Classic  Revival? 

2.  Name  a  building  characteristic  of  the  Classic-Revival  period  in 
(a)   France,   (b)   Germany,    (c)   England,     (d)   Describe  each. 

3.  What  are  the  existing  conditions  affecting  the  development  of 
architectural  style  in   (a)   France?   (b)   England? 

4.  (a)  What  are  the  characteristics  of  Victorian  Gothic?    (b)  What 
is  the  most  important  building  in  this  style? 

5.  What   are   the   characteristics  of  Early  Colonial  architecture  in 
America? 

6.  What  American  buildings  reflect  the  influences  of  the  (a)  Clas- 
sic Revival  in  England?     (b)   Gothic  Revival  in  England? 

7.  What   two   American   architects  influenced  the  development  of 
the  architecture  in  the  United  States? 


INDEX 


NOTE. — In  this  volume,  each  Section  is  complete  in  itself  and  has  a  number.  This 
number  is  printed  at  the  top  of  every  page  of  the  Section  in  the  headline  opposite  the 
page  number,  and  to  distinguish  the  Section  number  from  the  page  number,  the  Section 
number  is  preceded  by  a  section  mark  (§).  In  order  to  find  a  reference,  glance  along 
the  inside  edges  of  the  headlines  until  the  desired  Section  number  is  found,  then  along 
the  page  numbers  of  that  Section  until  the  desired  page  is  found.  Thus,  to  find  the 
reference  "Alhambra,  The,  §51,  p!48,"  turn  to  the  Section  marked  §51,  then  to  page  148 
of  that  Section. 

A  Architecture,    Analytical    study    of    English 


Abbaye   aux   Homines,   §50,  p211 
Abbeys  and  monasteries,   §51,   p28 
Academy  of  Music  at  -Paris,  §51,  p340 
Age  of  Louis  XIV,  §51,  p260 

of  Louis  XV,  §51,  p264 
Alberti,  Leoni  Battista,  §51,  p!95 
Alcazar  at  Seville,  §51,  p!49 
Aihambra,   The,   §51,   p!48 
American  architects,   §51,  p352 

architecture,   §51,   p345 
Amiens  Cathedral,  §51,  p20 
Amphitheater?,  Roman,  §50,  p98 
Anglo-Classic   period,    §51,   p309 
Anthemion  ornament,   §50,  p/4 
Antwerp  Cathedral,  §51,  p52 
Aqueducts    and    bridges,    Roman,    §50,    p!06 
Arabian    art,    Persian    compared    with,    §51, 
p!71 

ornament,    §51,   p!66 
Arch  du  Carrousel,   §51,  p328 
Architects,  American,   §51,  p352 

Venetian,   §51,  p220 
Architectural    influences,    Egyptian,    §50,    p4 

orders,  §50,  p47 

ornament,   §50,  p3 
Architecture,  American,   §51,  p345 

Analytical    study    of    Belgian    and    Dutch 
Renaissance,  §51,  p290 

Analytical   study   of   Byzantine,   §50,   p!47 

Analytical    study    of    Dutch    and    Belgian 
Gothic,   §51,  p56 

Analytical   study   of   early   Christian,    §50, 
p!26 

Analytical    study    of   English    Gothic,    §50, 
p266 


Renaissance,    §51,    p301 
Analytical    study    of    French    Gothic,    §31, 

p34 
Analytical    study    of   French    Renaissance, 

§51,  p269 
Analytical   study   of   French   Romanesque, 

§50,  p211 
Analytical  study  of  German  Romanesque, 

§50,  p222 
Analytical    study    of   German   Gothic,    §51, 

p64 
Analytical   study   of   German   Renaissance, 

§51,  p282 
Analytical    study    of    Italian    Gothic,    §51, 

p78 
Analytical    study    of    Italian    Renaissance, 

§51,   p226 
Analytical    study    of   Italian    Romanesque, 

§50,   P199 

Analytical   study   of  Moslem,   §51,   plSl 
Analytical     study     of     Renaissance,     §51, 

plSO 
Analytical    study     of    Romanesque,     §50, 

p!79 
Analytical  study  of  Spanish  Gothic,   §51, 

p92 
Analytical  study  of  Spanish  Renaissance, 

§51,  p294 
Asiatic,  §50,  p30 
Belgian     and     Dutch     Renaissance,     §51, 

p285 

Central   Italian   Romanesque,    §50,   p!88 
Characteristics     of     Belgian     and     Dutch 

Renaissance,    §51,    p2S6 
Characteristics  of  Byzantine,   §50,  p!33 


INDEX 


Architecture.    Characteristics    of   Dutch    and 

Belgian  Gothic,   §51,  p48 
Characteristics    of    early    Christian,    §50, 

p!22 

Characteristics  of  Egyptian,  §50,  p6 
Characteristics    of    English    Gothic,    §50, 

p239 
Characteristics    of    English    Renaissance, 

§51,  p300 
Characteristics  of  Florentine  Renaissance, 

§51,   p!91 

Characteristics  of  French  Gothic,  §51,  p3 
Characteristics     of     French     Renaissance, 

§51,  p239 
Characteristics    of    French    Romanesque, 

§50,  p202 

Characteristics  of  German  Gothic,  §51,  p60 
Characteristics    of    German    Renaissance, 

§51,  p278 
Characteristics    of    German    Romanesque, 

§50,  p215 

Characteristics  of  Gothic,  §50,  p234 
Characteristics     of     Italian    Gothic,     §51, 

p68 

Characteristics   of   Moslem,    §51,   p!47 
Characteristics       of       Northern       Italian 

Romanesque,  §50,  p!93 
Characteristics  of  Romanesque,  §50,  p!69 
Characteristics  of  Renaissance,   §51,  p!77 
Characteristics     of     Roman     Renaissance, 

§51,  p!99 

Characteristics  of  Spanish  Gothic.  §51,  p86 
Characteristics    of    Spanish    Renaissance, 

§51,  p292 
Characteristics    of   Venetian   Renaissance, 

§51,  P218 

Dutch  and   Belgian   Gothic,   §51,  p44 
Early  Christian,  §50,  pi  18 
Early  Colonial,   §51,  p345 
Early  Republican,  §51,  p348 
Egyptian,   §50,  p4 
English  Gothic,  §50,  p237 
English   Renaissance,   §51,  p296 
Examples  of   Belgian  and   Dutch   Renais- 
sance, §51,  p288 

Examples  of  Byzantine,  §50,  pi 36     . 
Examples  of  Central  Italian  Romanesque, 

§50,  p!88 
Examples   of   Dutch   and   Belgian   Gothic, 

§51,  pSO 

Examples  of  early  Christian,  §50,  pi 24 
Examples  of  English  Gothic,  §50,  p248 
Examples  of  Florentine  Renaissance,  §51, 

p!91 

Examples  of  French  Gothic,  §51,  p8 
Examples    of    French    Renaissance,    §51, 

p240 


Architecture,   Examples   of   French    Roman- 
esque, §50,  p204 

Examples  of  German  Gothic,  §51,  p62 
Examples    of    German    Renaissance,    §51, 

p379 
Examples    of    German    Romanesque,    §50, 

p215 

Examples  of  Italian  Gothic,  §51,  p70 
Examples  of  Moslem,  §51,  p!48 
Examples    of    Northern    Italian    Roman- 
esque, §50,  p!95 
Examples    of    Roman    Renaissance,    §51, 

p200 

Examples  of  Spanish  Gothic,  §51,  p88 
Examples    of    Spanish    Renaissance,    §51, 

p292 
Examples   of  Venetian   Renaissance,    §51, 

p220 

Florentine  Renaissance,  §51,  p!89 
French  Gothic,   §51,  pi 
French   Renaissance,   §51,  p236 
French  Romanesque,   §50,  p200 
German  Gothic,  §51,  p57 
German  Renaissance,  §51,  p276 
German  Romanesque,  §50,  p213 
Gothic,  §50,  p232 
Greek,  §50,  p40 
in  Europe,  Recent,  §51,  p336 
Influences  affecting  Asiatic,  §50,  p30 
Influences    affecting    Belgian    and    Dutch 

Renaissance,  §51,  p285 
Influences  affecting  Byzantine,   §50,  p!30 
Influences    affecting    Dutch    and    Belgian 

Gothic,    §51,   p44 
Influences  affecting  early    Christian,    §50, 

pl!8 
Influences  affecting  English    Gothic,    §50, 

P237 
Influences  affecting  English   Renaissance, 

§51,  p296 

Influences     affecting     Florentine     Renais- 
sance,  §51,   pi 89 
Influences   affecting   French    Gothic,    §51, 

Pi 
Influences   affecting   French    Renaissance, 

§51,  p236 
Influences  affecting  French   Romanesque, 

§50,  p200 
Influences  affecting  German   Gothic,    §51, 

P57 
Influences  affecting  German  Renaissance, 

§51,  p276 
Influences  affecting  German  Romanesque, 

§50,  p213 
Influences    affecting    Italian    Gothic,    §51, 

p66 


INDEX  iii 

Architecture,      Influences     affecting     Italian  Belgian     Gothic     architecture,     Dutch     and, 

Romanesque,    §50,    p!84  §51,   p44 

Influences   affecting    Moslem,    §51,   ]>143  Gothic  ornament,  Dutch  and,  §51,  p56 

Influences      affecting      Renaissance,      §51,  Blois,   Chateau   at,    §51,   pp!04,   240 

p!73  Bodiam  Castle,  §51,  plOO 

Influences    affecting    Roman    Renaissance,  Bonn,  Cathedral   at,   §50,  p219 

§51,   p!98  Bourses  Cathedral.   §51,   p!2 

Influences     affecting     Romanesque,     §50,  Bramante,   §51,   p200 

p!61  Brunelleschi,   Filippo,   §51,  p!93 

Influences   affecting   Spanish    Gothic,    §51,  Brussels   Cathedral,    §51,   pSO 

p83  Burgos  Cathedral,   §51,   p88 

Influences   affecting   Spanish    Renaissance,  Byzantine  architecture,  Analytical  study  of, 

§51,  p291  §50,  p!47 

Influences      affecting      Venetian      Renais-  architecture,  Characteristics  of,   §50,  p!33 

sance,  §51,  p216  architecture,   Examples  of,   §50,   p!36 

Italian   Gothic,   §51,  p66  architecture,      Influences     affecting,     §50, 

Italian   Renaissance,   §51,   p!89  p!30 

Italian    Romanesque,    §50,    pi 84  ornament,   §50,   p!49 

Local  influences  affecting,   §50,  p2  structures,    §50,    p!44 
Medieval,  §50,  p!29 
Military   and   domestic,    §51,   p96 

Moslem,  §51,  p!42  Cancellaria  Palace,   §51,  p214 

Northern    Italian   Romanesque,    §50,   p!93  Canterbury  Cathedral,  §50,  p261 

Origin  of,  §50,  pi  Capitol   at   Washington,   §51,   p348 

Pompeian,  §50,  pl!6  Caprarola,   Palace,   §51,  p214 

Renaissance,   §51,  p!73  Carcassonne,    Fortified    city    of,    §51,    p!04 

Roman,   §50,  p80  Castle,  Bodiam,  §51,  plOO 

Roman  Renaissance,   §51,  p!98  Hoensarzhurg,  §51,  p!04 

Romanesque,   §50,  p!61  Kenilworth,   §51,  p!20 

Secular,  §51,  p95  Warwick,   §51,   pl20 

Southern    Italian    Romanesque,    §50,   p!95  Castles   and   chateaux,    §51,   plOO 

Spanish   Gothic,   §51,   p83  Cathedral,    Amiens,    §51,    p20 

Spanish    Renaissance,    §51,    p291  Antwerp,   §51,  p52 

Venetian   Renaissance,   §51,  p216  at   Bonn,    §50,   p219 

Asiatic  architecture,  §50,  p30  at  Pisa,  §50,  p!88 

architecture,    Analytical    study  of,  §50,  p35  at  Speyer,   §50,  p219 

architecture.   Examples   of,    §50,   p32  at  Worms,   §50,  p219 

Assyrian   ornament,    §50,   p37  Bourges,  §51,  p!2 

Azay-le-Rideau,  Chateau,  §51,  p249  Brussels,  §51,  r-30 

Burgos,   §51,  p88 

B  Canterbury.   §50,  p261 

Baptisteries,   §50,  p!25  Chartres,   §51,  p!4 

Baptistery  at  Pisa,   §50,  p!93  Cologne,   §51,  p62 

Basilicas,   Roman,    §50,   p95  Ely,  §50,  p261 

Baths,  Roman,  §50,  p96  Florence,  §51,  p70 

Belgian    and    Dutch    Renaissance    architec  Lichfield,  §50,  p254 

ture,    §51,    p285  Milan,   §51,   p70 

and       Dutch      Renaissance      architecture,  Notre  Dame,   §51,   p8 

Analytical   study   of,    §51,   p290  Peterborough,   §50,  p248 

and      Dutch      Renaissance      architecture,  Ratisbon,  §51,  p62 

Examples  of,  §51,  p286  Reims,   §51,  p!8 

and       Dutch      Renaissance      architecture,  Salisbury.   §50,  p251 

Examples   of,   §51,   p288  Segovia.  §51,  p90 

and      Dutch      Renaissance      architecture,  Siena,   §51,  p73 

Influences  affecting,   §51,   p285  St.  Gregorio,  §51.  p88 

and    Dutch    Renaissance    ornament,    §51,  St.   Paul's,   §51,  p312 

p290  Tournai,  §51,  pSO 


IV 


INDEX 


Cathedral,   Ulm,   §51,   p62 

Wells,  §50,  p261 

Winchester,  §50,  p254 

Central     Italian    Romanesque    architecture, 
§50,  p!88 

Italian   Romanesque  architecture,  Charac- 
teristics of,   §50,  p!88 

Italian      Romanesque     architecture,      Ex- 
amples of,  §50,  p!88 
Chambord,  Chateau,  §51,  p249 
Characteristics  of  architectural  style,  §50,  p3 
Chartres  Cathedral,  §51,  p!4 
Chateau  at  Blois,  §51,  pp!04,  240 

Azay-le-Rideau,  §51,  p249 

Chambord,  §51,  p249 

Chaumont,   §51,  pl!6 

Chenonceau,  §51,  p246 

Pierrefonds,  §51,  plOO 
Chateaux,  §51,  p240 

and  castles,  §51,  plOO 

Private,  §51,  pl!2 
Chaumont  chateau,   §51,  pl!6 
Chenonceau,  Chateau,  §51,  p246 
Chivalry,  §50,  p!66 

Choragic  monument  of  Lysicrates,  §50,  p59 
Christian   architecture,   Analytical   study    of 
early,    §50,    p!26 

architecture,  Characteristics  of,  §50,  p!22 

architecture,   Early,   §50,   pi  18 

architecture,     Influences     affecting,     §50, 
pl!8 

tombs,   §50,  p!25 
Church  du  Beguinage,  §51,  p288 

Iffley,  §50,  p257 

Notre  Dame  le  Grande,  §50,  p208 

of  San  Michele,   §50,  p!95 

of  St.  Andrea  Mantua,  §51,  p!95 

of  St.  Bride,  §51,  p317 

of  St.  Croix,  §50,  p207 

of  St.  Etienne  du  Mont,  §51,  p256 

of  St.  Front,  §50,  p204 

of     St.     Genevieve,     or     Pantheon,     §51, 
p323 

of  St.  John  Lateran,  §51,  p208 

of  St.  Maria  della  Salute,  §51,  p224 

of  St.  Mark,  §50,  p!40 

of  St.  Martin,  §51,  p319 

of  St.  Mary  le  Bow,  §51,  p31S 

of  St.  Sulpice,  §51,  p264 

of  St.  Vitale,  §50,  p!40 

of  the  Apostles,  §50,  p215 

Sorbonne,  §51,  p260 
City  gate  at  Munich,  §51,  p331 

gates,  §51,  p!34 

Classic  period  of  French  Renaissance,   §51, 
p258 

revival,  §51,  p321 


Classic  revival,  Characteristics  of,  §51,  p321 

revival  in  England,  §51,  p333 

revival  in  France,  §51,  p323 

revival  in  Germany,  §51,  p329 
Cloisters  of  St.  Paul,  §50,  p!93 
College,  Girard,  §51,  p351 
Cologne  Cathedral,  §51,  p62 
Colonial  architecture,  Early,  §51,  p345 
Colored  decorations,  §51,  p43 
Coloring  in   Moorish   ornament,   §51,   p!61 
Column,  Grecian  Doric,  §50,  p64 
Cordova,  Mosque  at,  §51,  p!49 
Corinthian  order,  §50,  p66 
Cornaro   Palace,   §51,   p222 
Crusades,  Result  of  the,  §50,  p230 

The,  §50,  p227 

D 

Dark  Ages,  The,  §50,  p!67 

Decorated  vaulting,   §50,  p243 

Decoration,  Wall,  §50,  p24 

Decorations,  Colored,  §51,  p43 

De  Ville,  Hotel,  §51,  p292 

Domestic  architecture,  Examples  of  military 

and,  §51,  plOO 

architecture,   Military  and,   §^51,   p96 
Doric  column,  Grecian,  §50,  p64 
Du  Beguinage,  Church,  §51,  p288 
Ducal   Palace,   §51,  p220 
Dutch  and  Belgian  Gothic  architecture,  §51, 

p44 

and  Belgian  Gothic  architecture,  Analyti- 
cal study  of,  §51,  p56 

and   Belgian    Gothic   architecture,    Charac- 
teristics of,  §51,  p48 

and     Belgian     Gothic     architecture,     Ex- 
amples of,  §51,  p50 

and    Belgian    Gothic    architecture,    Influ- 
ences affecting,   §51,  p44 
and  Belgian  Gothic  ornament,  §51,  p56 
Renaissance        architecture,        Analytical 

study  of  Belgian  and,  §51,  p290 
Renaissance     architecture,     Belgian     and, 

§51,  p28S 
Renaissance    architecture,    Characteristics 

of  Belgian  and,  §51,  p286 
Renaissance     architecture,     Examples     of 

Belgian   and,   §51,   p288 
Renaissance        architecture,        Influences 

affecting  Belgian  and,   §51,  p285 
Renaissance  ornament,  Belgian  and,   §51, 
p290 

E 

Early  Christian  architecture,   §50,  pi  18 
Christian    architecture,    Analytical    study 
of,  §50,  p!26 


INDEX  v 

Early    Christian    architecture,    Examples    of,  French    Gothic    architecture,    Characteristics 

§50,   p!24  of,   §51,   p3 

Christian   ornament,    §50,   p!27  Gothic     architecture,     Examples     of,     §51, 

Colonial    architecture,    §51,   p345  j)8 

English   vaulting,   §50,  j>242  Gothic    architecture,    Influences    affecting, 

Republican   architecture,   §51,   p348  §51,  pi 

East  Indian   ornament,   §51,  p!67  Gothic  ornament,   §51,  p38 

Egyptian    architectural    characteristics,    §50,  Renaissance   architecture,    §51,   p236 

p6  Renaissance         architecture,         Analytical 

architectural    influences,    §50,   p4  study   of,   §51,   p269 

architecture,    §50,    p4  Renaissance    architecture,     Characteristics 

architecture,  Analytical  study  of,  §50,  p!9  of,  §51,  p239 

obelisks,   §50,  p!8  Renaissance    architecture,    Classic    period 

ornament,   §50,   p21  of,    §51,   p258 

ornament,   Types    of,    §50,  p22  Renaissance     architecture,     Examples     of, 

pyramids,   §50,  p8  §51,   p240 

temples,    §50,    plO  Renaissance    architecture,     Influences    af- 

tombs,    §50,    p8  feeling,   §51,  p236 

Elizabethan  period,  §51,  p308  Renaissance  ornament,   §51,  p272 

Ely  Cathedral,  §50,  p261  Romanesque  architecture,   §50,   p200 

English    Gothic    architecture,    §50,   p237  Romanesque        architecture,        Analytical 

Gothic    architecture,    Analytical    study    of,  study   of,   §50,  p211 

§50,  p266  Romanesque    architecture,    Characteristics 

Gothic     architecture,     Characteristics     of,  of,  §50,  p202 

§50,  p239  Romanesque    architecture,    Examples    of, 

Gothic     architecture,     Examples     of,     §50,  §50,  p204 

p248  Romanesque    architecture,    Influences    af- 

Gothic    architecture,    Influences    affecting,  feeling,   §50,  p200 

§50,   p237 

Gothic  ornament,   §50,  p284  Q 
Renaissance    architecture,    §51,   p296 

Renaissance        architeclure,         Analylical  Gales,   City,   §51,  p!34 

study   of,   §51,   p301  German  Golhic  archilecture,   §51,  p57 

Renaissance    architecture,     Characlerislics  Gothic    architecture,    Analytical    study    of, 

of,   §51,  p300  §51,  p64 

Renaissance    architecture,     Influences    af-  Gothic     archilecture,     Characleristics     of, 

feeling,   §51,  p296  §51,  p60 

Renaissance  ornament,   §51,  p307  Gothic   archileclure,   Examples  of,  §51,  p62 

Erechtheum,  The,   §50,  p53  Golhic    archileclure,    Influences   affecting, 

§51,  p57 

Gothic  ornament,  §51,  p65 

Farnese   Palace,   §51,   p210  Renaissance  architecture,   §51,  p276 

Feudalism,   §50,  p!64  Renaissance         architeclure,         Analytical 

Fitzwilliain   Museum,    §51,   p333  sludy   of,    §51,    p282 

Florence   Cathedral,    §51,   p70  Renaissance    architeclure,     Characlerislics 

Florentine     Renaissance     archileclure,     §51,  of,   §51,   p278 

p!89  Renaissance     archileclure,     Examples     of, 

Renaissance    architecture,     Characterislics  §51,  p279 

of,    §51,   p!91  Renaissance    archilecture.     Influences    af- 

Renaissance     architecture,     Examples     of,  feeling,   §51,  p276 

§51,   p!91  Romanesque  archilecture,   §50,   p213 

Renaissance         architecture,         Influences  Romanesque        architeclure,        Analytical 

affecting,    §51,  p!89  study   of.   §50,   p222 

Francis   I.   Hunting  lodge  of,   §51,  p256  Romanesque    architecture,    Characteristics 

French   Gothic   architeclure,   §51,  pi  of,  §50,  p215 

Gothic    architecture,    Analytical    study    of,  Romanesque     architecture,     Examples     of, 

§51,  p34  §50,  p215 

1  L  T  303—43 


VI 


INDEX 


German     Romanesque     architecture,     Influ- 
ences affecting,   §50,  p213 

Romanesque  ornament,   §50,  p224 
Giralda,  The,  §51,  p!48 
Girard  College,  §51,  p351 
Giraud  Palace,  §51,  p210 
Glyptothek,  The,  §51,  p331 
Gothic  architecture,  §50,  p232 

architecture,  Characteristics  of,  §50,  p234 

architecture,    Characteristics    of    English, 
§50,  p239 

architecture,    Characteristics    of    Spanish, 
§51,  p86 

architecture,  English,  §50,  p237 

architecture,    Examples    of    Spanish,    §51, 
p88 

architecture,  Influences  affecting  English, 
§50,  p237 

architecture,  Influences  affecting  Spanish, 
§51,  p83 

architecture,   Spanish,   §51,   p83 

ornament,  Italian,  §51,  p82 

revival,   §51,  p342 

Grace  churches,  Trinity  and,  §51,  p352 
Grecian  Doric  column,  §50,  p64 
Greek  architecture,  §50,  p40 

architecture,  Analytical  study  of,  §50,  p63 

architecture,   Characteristics   of,    §50,  p44 

architecture,  Examples  of,   §50,  p49 

architecture,     Influences     affecting,     §50, 
p40 

lily,   §50,  p74 

monuments,    §50,   p42 

ornament,   §50,  p68 

ornament,  Forms  of,  §50,  p71 

theaters,  §50,  p61 

tombs,  §50,  p61 


Haarlem,  Market  at,  §51,  p289 
Hagia  Sophia,  Church   of,   §50,  p!36 
Hall,  St.  George's,  §51,  p334 
Halls,  Town,  §51,  p!24 
Hoensarzburg  Castle,  §51,  p!04 
Honeysuckle  orpament,   §50,   p71 
Hotel  de  Ville,  §51,  p292 
Houses,  Roman,  §50,  pllS 
Hunting  lodge  of  Francis  I,  §51,  p256 


Iffley,  Church  at,  §50,  p257 

Indian    art,    Persian    compared    with,    §51, 

p!72 

Ionic  order,  The,  §50,  p6S 
Italian   Gothic  architecture,   §51,  p66 

Gothic   architecture,   Analytical   study   of, 

§51,  p78 


Italian    Gothic    architecture,    Characteristics 

of;    §51,    p68 
Gothic    architecture,     Examples    of,     §51, 

p70 
Gothic    architecture,    Influences    affecting, 

§51,  p66 

Gothic  ornament,  §51,  p82 
Renaissance  architecture,  §51,  p!89 
Renaissance  architecture,  Analytical  study 

of,  §51,  p226 

Renaissance    ornament,    §51,    p230 
Romanesque  architecture,   §50,  p!84 
Romanesque        architecture,        Analytical 

study  of,  §50,  p!99 
Romanesque    architecture,    Central,     §50, 

p!88 

Romanesque    architecture,    Influences    af- 
fecting, §50,  p!84 

K 

Kenil worth  Castle,  §51,  pi 20 


Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa,   §50,  p!93 
Library  of  St.  Mark,  §51,  p222 
Lichfield  Cathedral,  §50,  p254 
Louis  XIV,  Age  of,  §51,  p260 

XV,  Age  of,  §51,  p264 
Louvre,  The,  §51,  p337 

Palace,  §51,  p256 

Lysicrates,     Choragic     monument     of,     §50, 
P59 


Madeline  at  Paris,  The,   §51,  p327 

Market  at  Haarlem,  §51,  p289 

Medieval  architecture,  §50,  p!29 

Michelangelo,  §51,  p200 

Milan  Cathedral,   §51,  p70 

Military  and  domestic  architecture,  §51,  p96 

and   domestic   architecture,    Examples    of, 

§51,  plOO 

Minor  dwellings,  §51,  p!38 
Monasteries  and  abbeys,  §51,  p28 
Monument  of  Lysicrates,  §50,  p59 
Monuments,  Greek,  §50,  p42 
Moorish  ornament,  §51,  p!59 

ornament,  Coloring  in,  §51,  p!61 
Moslem  architecture,   §51,  p!42 

architecture,    Analytical    study    of,     §51, 
plSl 

architecture,  Characteristics  of,  §51,  p!47 

architecture,  Examples  of,  §51,  p!48 

architecture,     Influences     affecting,     §51, 
p!43 

ornament,  §51,  p!59 
Mosque  at  Cordova,  §51,  p!49 


INDEX  vii 


Munich,  City  gate  at,   §51,  p331  Palace,   Riccardi,   §51,   p!93 

Museum,   Fitzwilliam,   §51,  p333  Strozzi,   §51,  p!97 

Vendramini,    §51,   p222 

N  Versailles,  §51,   p264 

Nike  Apteros,  Temple  of,  §50,  p56  Palaces  in  Germany,   §51,  pi 22 

Norman   vaulting,   §50,   p240  Roman,  §50,  pi 07;  §51,  p208 

Northern    Italian    Romanesque  architecture,  Venetian,   §51,  pi 22 

§50,  p!93  Palazzo  del   Consiglio,    §51,   p224 
Italian    Romanesque  architecture,   Charac-        Pandolfini   Palace,   §51,  p!97 

teristics  of,  §50,  p!93  Pantheon  at   Paris,   §51,  p323 

Notre  Dame  Cathedral,   §51,   p8  Papyrus  plant,   §50,   p23 

Dame  de  Grande,  Church  of,  §50,  p208  Parliament  houses  at  Vienna,  §51,  P332 

jj  houses  at  Westminster,  §51,  p342 

Obelisks,  Egyptian,   §50,  p!8  Parthenon,  The,   §50,  ,,49 

Orders,  Architectural,   §50,  p47  'Pe"?d'  Anglo-(  lass.c.  §51,  P30< 

Origin   of  architecture,   §50,   pi  Elizabethan,    §51,   p308 

Ornament,  Anthemion,   §50,  P74  „  of  I-rench  Renaissance,  Class.c,  §51,  ,,2: 

Arabian,  §51,  p!66  Perpendicular    vaulting,    §50,    p245 

Architectural,   §50,  p3  Persian    coml'ared    wlth    Arabian    art,    § 

Assyrian,  §50,  p37  p171 

Belgian  and  Dutch  Renaissance,  §51,  p290  compared   with   Indian  art,   §51,  p!72 

Byzantine,  §50,  p!49  ornament,    §51,   pl/1 

Dutch  and  Belgian  Gothic,  §51,  p56  Pesar,°  Pala«-   §5''  f2' 

Early  Christian,   §50,  p!27  Peterborough   Cathedral,   §50,   P248 

•c     .    r     ,•         a-,       ••(••,  Petit  Trianon,   §51,   p264 

hast   Indian,    §ol,  p!67 

Egyptian    §50   p21  Pierrefonds,  Chateau,  |S1,  plOO 

English  Gothic,   §50,  P284  P!"arST)°f  vict°ry'   R°man>   §5°'  pl°5 

English   Renaissance,   §51,   ,,307  Pisa    Baptistery  at,  §.0,  p!93 

French  Gothic,  §51,  p38  Cathedral  at,  §50,  P188 

French  Renaissance,   §51,  p272  „  Lfa"'"g  tOWer  at'   §5°'  p193 

r-               r  »i  •      sci     \e  'Pitti   Palace,   §51,  p!95 

German  Gothic,  §51,  p65 

,-.               „                          o-n       TT,.  1  ompeian  architecture,  §aO,  pi  16 

German  Romanesque,   §oO,  p224 

r*       i      C-A       £o  w>a"   decorations,    §30,   pl!7 

Greek,   §30,  p68 

,  ,       „.„       ,,  Private  chateaux,   §51,  pl!2 

Honeysuckle,   §sO,   p71  '  "     '  ' 

T.   ,.        ^  .1  •      c-i       OT  Propylaea,  The,   SaO,   po6 
Italian   Gothic,   §al,   p82 

,.   ,.        •„       .                „.,       ,,,..  Pyramids,   §^0,  p8 
Italian   Renaissance,   §ol,   p230 

Moorish,  §51,  p!59  R 

Moslem,   §51,  p!59 

Persian,   §51,  pl~l  a  .ae  '   •     '  p 

Renaissance,    §51,   P186  Ratisbon  Cathedral,  §51,  P62 

Roman    §50    pi  14  Recent  architecture  in   Europe,    §51,  p336 

Romanesque,   §50,   p!82  Reims  Cathedral.  §51,  pl8 

Spanish  Gothic,  §51,  P93  Renaissance  architecture,  §51,  P173 

Spanish  Renaissance,  §51,  p29S  architecture,    Analytical     study    of,     §51, 

Turkish,  §51,  pi 70  p18 

architecture.   Analytical   study   of   Belgian 

P  and  Dutch,  §51,  p290 

Palace,  Cancellaria,  §51,  p214  architecture,  Analytical  study  of  English, 

Caprarola,  §51,  p214  §51,  p301 

Cornaro,  §5,1,  p222  architecture,   Analytical   study   of   French, 

Ducal,  §51,  p220  §51,  p269 

Farnese,   §51,  p210  architecture.  Analytical  study  of  German, 

Giraud,   §51,  p210  §51,   p282 

Louvre,   §51,   p256  architecture.    Analytical    s-widy    of    Italian, 

Pandolfini,    §51.   p!97  §51,   p226 

Pe?aro.  §51,  p222  architecture.  Analytical  study  of  Spanish, 

Pitti,  §51,  p!95  §51,  p294 


Vlll 


INDEX 


Renaissance  architecture,  Characteristics  of, 

151,  P177 
architecture,    Characteristics    of     Belgian 

and  Dutch,  §51,  p286 
architecture,    Characteristics    of    English, 

§51,  p300 

architecture,     Characteristics     of    Floren- 
tine, §51,  p!91 
architecture,    Characteristics    of    French, 

§51,  P239 
architecture,    Characteristics    of    German, 

§51,  p278 
architecture,    Characteristics    of    Roman, 

§51,  P199 
architecture,    Characteristics    of    Spanish, 

§51,  p292 
architecture,   Characteristics  of  Venetian, 

§51,  p218 

architecture,  English,  §51,  p296 
architecture,  Examples  of,  §51,  p279 
architecture,    Examples    of    Belgian    and 

Dutch,  §51,  p288 
architecture,      Examples     of     Florentine, 

§51,  p!91 
architecture,    Examples    of    French,    §51, 

p240 
architecture,    Examples    of    Roman,    §51, 

p200 
architecture,    Examples    of    Spanish,    §51, 

p292 
architecture,  Examples  of  Venetian,   §51, 

p220 

architecture,  Florentine,   §51,  p!89 
architecture,  French,  §51,  p236 
architecture,  German,  §51,  p276 
architecture,     Influences     affecting,     §51, 

p!73 
architecture,   Influences  affecting   Belgian 

and  Dutch,  §51,  p285 
architecture,  Influences  affecting  English, 

§51,  p296 

architecture,    Influences   affecting   Floren- 
tine, §51,  p!89 
architecture,   Influences  affecting  French, 

§51,  p236 
architecture,  Influences  affecting  German, 

§51,  p276 
architecture,   Influences  affecting  Roman, 

§51,   p!98 
architecture,  Influences  affecting  Spanish, 

§51,  p291 

architecture,    Influences    affecting    Vene- 
tian,  §51,  p216 

architecture,  Italian,  §51,  p!89 
architecture,  Roman,  §51,  p!98 
architecture,  Spanish,  §51,  p291 
architecture,  Venetian,  §51,  p216 


Renaissance  ornament,  §51,  p!86 

ornament,   Belgian  and   Dutch,   §51,  p290 

ornament,  English,  §51,  p307 

ornament,  French,   §51,  p272 

ornament,  Italian,  §51,  p230 

ornament,  Spanish,  §51,  p295 
Republican  architecture,  Early,  §51,  p348 
Result  of  the  Crusades,  §50,  p230 
Riccardi  Palace,  §51,  p!93 
Rise  of  the  Saracens,   §50,  p!58 
Roman  aqueducts  and  bridges,  §50,  plO 

architecture,   §50,  p80 

architecture,    Analytical    study     of,     §50, 
p!07 

architecture,   Characteristics   of,   §50,   p86 
'  architecture,  Examples  of,  §50,  p89 

architecture,     Influences     affecting,     §50, 
p80 

basilicas,   §50,  p95 

baths,  §50,  p97 

houses,  §50,  pi  15 

ornament,  §50,  pi  14 

palaces,  §50,  p!07;  §51,  p208 

pillars  of  victory,  §50,  p!05 

Renaissance   architecture,    §51,   pl98 

Renaissance    architecture,     Characteristics 
of,  §51,  p!99 

Renaissance     architecture,     Examples     of, 
§51,  p200 

Renaissance    architecture,    Influences    af- 
fecting,  §51,  p!98 

temples,  §50,  p89 

theaters  and  amphitheaters,  §50,  p98 

tombs,  §50,  plOS 

triumphal  arches,  §50,  p!04 

vault,  §50,  p88 
Romanesque  architecture,   §50,  p!61 

architecture,    Analytical    study    of,     §50, 
p!79 

architecture,  Characteristics  of,  §50,  p!69 

architecture,   Characteristics   of  Northern 
Italian,  §50,  p!93 

architecture,       Example       of       Northern 
Italian,  §50,  p!95 

architecture,   French,  §50,  p200 

architecture,   German,   §50,  p213 

architecture,     Influences     affecting,     §50, 
p!61 

architecture,  Italian,  §50,  p!84 

architecture,   Northern   Italian,   §50,  p!93 

architecture,   Southern  Italian,   §50,   p!95 

ornament,   §50,  p!82 

vaulting,   §50,  p!72 
Roofs,  Timber,  §50,  p247 
Rosette  forms,  §50,  p27 
Royal  exchange,  The,  §51,  p334 
Ruhmeshalle,  The,  §51,  p329 


INDEX 


IX 


Salisbury  Cathedral,  §50,  p251 

San  Michele,  Church  of,  §50,  p!95 

Saracens,  Rise  of  the,  §50,  p!58 

Scarabreus  ornament,  §50,  p24 

Secular  architecture,  §51,  p95 

Segovia  Cathedral,  §51,  p90 

Seville,  Alcazar  at,   §51,  p!49 

Siena  Cathedral,   §51,  p73 

Somerset  House,  §51,  p318 

Sorborme  Church,  §51,  p260 

Southern   Italian   Romanesque   architecture, 

§50,  p!95 
Spanish  Gothic  architecture,  §51,  p83 

Gothic    architecture,    Analytical    study    of, 
§51,  p92 

Gothic    architecture,    Examples    of,    §51, 
I>83 

Gothic  ornament,   §51,  p93 

Renaissance   architecture,    §51,    p291 

Renaissance  architecture,  Analytical  study 
of,   §51,  p294 

Renaissance    architecture,     Characteristics 
of,  §51,  p292 

Renaissance     architecture,     Examples     of, 
§51,  p292 

Renaissance     architecture,     Influences    af- 
fecting,  §51,  p291 

Renaissance    ornament,    §51,   p295 
Speyer,  Cathedral  at,   §50,  p219 
St.    Andrea   Mantua,   Church   of,   §51,   p!95 

Bride,   Church   of,   §51,  p317 

Croix,   Church  of,   §50,  p207 

Etienne  du  Mont,  Church  of,  §51,  p256 

Front,  Church  of,   §50,  p204 

Genevieve,  or  Pantheon,  Church  of,  §51, 
p323 

George's  Hall,   §51,  p334 

Gregorio,  Cathedral   of,   §51,  p88 

John  Lateran,  Church  of,  §51,  p208 

Maria  della   Salute,  Church   of,   §51,  p224 

Mark,   Church   of,   §50,   p!40 

Mark,  Library  of,  §51,  p222 

Martin,  Church  of.   §51,  p319 

Mary  le  Bow,  Church  of,  §51,  p315 

Otien,  Abbey  Church  of,   §51,  p24 

Paul,  Cloisters  of,  §50,  p!93 

Paul's  Cathedral,   §51,  p312 

Peter's  at  Rome,  §51,  p204 

Spirito  Church,  §51,  p!93 

Suljiice,  Church  of,  §51,  p264 

Vitale,  Church  of,  §50,  p!40 
Strozzi  Palace,  §51,  p!97 
Structures,  Byzantine,  §50,  p!44 


T 

Temple  of  Nike  Apteros,  §50,  p56 
Temples,   Egyptian,   §50,  plO 

Roman,  §50,  p89 
Theaters  and  amphitheaters,  Roman,  §50,  i 

Greek,   §50,   p61 

Three  great  laws  of  nature,  §50,  p69 
Timber  roofs,  §50,  p247 
^ombs,  Christian,   §50,  p!25 

Egyptian,   §50,  p8 

Greek,  §50,  p61 

Roman,  §50,  p!05 
Tournai  Cathedral,   §51,  pSO 
Tower  of  the  Winds,  §50,  p60 
Town  halls,  §51,  p!24 
Trinity  and  Grace  Churches,  §51,  p352 
Triumphal  arches,  Roman,   §50,  p!04 
Turkish   ornament,    §51,   p!70 
Types  of  Egyptian  ornament,   §50,  p22 

U 

Ulm  Cathedral,  §51,  p62 
University  of  Virginia,  §51,  p351 

V 

Vanbrugh,   Works   of,   §51,  p317 
Vault,  Roman,  §50,  p88 
Vaulting,  Decorated,  §50,  p243 

Early   English,    §50,  p242 

Norman,   §50,  p240 

Perpendicular,   §50,  p245 

Romanesque,   §50,  pi 72 
Vecchio  Palace,  Court  of,  §51,  p!97 
Vendramini  Palace,   §51,  p222 
Venetian  architects,   §51,  p220 

palaces,   §51,  p!22 

Renaissance  architecture,  §51,  p216 
Versailles  Palace,   §51,  p264 
Vignola,  §51,  p202 
Villa  Medici,  The,  §51,  p214 
Virginia,  University  of,  §51,  p351 

\V 

Walhalla,  The,  §51,  p329 
Wall   decorations,    §50,   p24 

decorations,  Pompeian,  §50,  pi  17 

paintings,   §50,   p28 
Warwick  Castle,  §51,  p!20 
Washington,  Capitol  at,  §51,  p348 
Wells  Cathedral,  §50,  p261 
Westminster  Abbey,   §50,  p265 

Parliament  Houses  at,   §51,  p342 
White  House  at   Washington,   §51,  p350 
Winchester  Cathedral,   §50,  p254 
Winged  disk  ornament,  §50,  p23 
Worms,  Cathedral  at,  §50,  p219 
Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  §51,  p309 


IVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY,  LOS  ANGELES 
Architecture  &  Urban  Planning  Library,  825-2747. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


RENEWALS 


I|IOV191989 


'D  AUPL, 


MAY  2  4  1990 


jvn. 

REC-D 


UCLA-AUPL 

NA  200  H57  1909 


L  005  857  190  2 


A    001  248131 


